Jednostki 1

Oto streszczenia jednostek z podręcznika Podstawowego języka polskiego. Here are summaries of units from the Basic Polish Language textbook.


Jednostka 1

Noun Genders and Adjective Agreement

  • Polish Noun Genders
    • Polish has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
    • Each noun has a gender.
    • All male persons are masculine and female persons are feminine.
    • The gender of all other nouns, with a few exceptions, is governed by their endings.
  • Inflected Language
    • Polish is an inflected language.
    • Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives change their endings to show their relationship to other words in the sentence (i.e. their case).
    • Polish does not need articles like a/an/the or some/any, unless needed for clarity.
    • Possessive pronouns like my, your, his, etc. are usually omitted.
  • Nominative (Subject) Case of Nouns
    • The subject of a sentence stands in the nominative case.
    • Dictionaries and vocabulary lists nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in their nominative case form.
    • After the verbs 'be' and 'become', a noun (and any associated adjective) stands in the instrumental case.
  • Masculine Nouns in the Nominative Singular
    • Masculine nouns in the nominative singular have no ending.
    • Their stems end in a consonant.
    • A few nouns referring to males end in -a, but they behave as feminine in the singular and masculine in the plural.
  • Feminine Nouns in the Nominative Singular
    • Feminine nouns in the nominative singular have the ending -a.
    • Very few have the ending -i.
    • Some feminine nouns end in a consonant.
    • Abstract nouns ending in -ść are feminine.
  • Neuter Nouns in the Nominative Singular
    • Neuter nouns in the nominative singular have various endings.
    • These endings never change in the singular.
    • Nouns in -ię and -ę do not show their stems in the nominative.
  • Nominative Case (Singular) of Adjectives
    • An adjective agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun or pronoun it qualifies.
    • Most adjectives end in -y, -a, or -e in the nominative singular.
    • Some adjectives have a k or g in the nominative singular.
    • A few adjectives end in -ci, -pi, or -ni.
  • Personal Pronouns in the Nominative Case
    • Personal pronouns in the nominative case include: ja, ty (sing.), on/ona/ono, my, wy (pl.), oni/one.
    • The pronouns on/ona/ono and oni/one can be omitted if the subject has already been mentioned or if the verb is in the past tense.
    • The verb być (to be) is often omitted in short questions/answers.
  • Polite Forms of Address
    • Polite forms of address include the singular forms pan and pani, and the plural forms panowie, panie, and państwo.
    • The singular forms use the on/ona part of all verbs, while the plural forms use the oni/one form of all verbs.
  • What Like?
    • To ask what something/someone is like, use the question words jaki?, jaka?, or jakie?

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 2

Masculine Nouns

  • Vowel Changes
    • Last vowel 'ó' becomes 'o'
    • Last vowel 'ą' becomes 'ę'
    • E before last consonant is usually lost
  • Ending 'y'
    • After hard consonant except 'k' and 'g'
    • Examples: dom -> domy, kot -> koty, stół -> stoły
  • Ending 'i'
    • After 'k' and 'g'
    • Examples: bank -> banki, ptak -> ptaki, dzwonek -> dzwonki
  • Ending 'e'
    • After 'j' and 'l'
    • Examples: kraj -> kraje, pokój -> pokoje, parasol -> parasole
  • Ending 'e'
    • After 'c', 'cz', 'sz', 'rz', 'ż', 'dw', 'dz'
    • Examples: pałac -> pałace, tysiąc -> tysiące, pieniądz -> pieniądze
  • Ending 'ie'
    • After ´ accent (accent lost, 'i' added)
    • Examples: koń -> konie, ogień -> ognie, tydzień -> tygodnie
  • Ending 'ie'
    • In a few nouns ending in '-b', '-p'
    • Examples: gołąb -> gołębie, karp -> karpie

Feminine Nouns

  • Ending 'y'
  • After hard stem (except 'k' and 'g') + '-a'
  • Examples: kobieta -> kobiety, szkoła -> szkoły, gwiazda -> gwiazdy
  • Ending 'i'
    • After 'k' and 'g' stem + '-a'
    • Examples: matka -> matki, córka -> córki, droga -> drogi
  • Ending 'i'
    • Nouns in '-ść', and some in '-ć', '-ń', '-dź' (accent lost)
    • Examples: miłość -> miłości, opowieść -> opowieści, nić -> nici
  • Ending 'i'
    • Some nouns in '-l', '-w'
    • Examples: myśl -> myśli, brew -> brwi
  • Ending 'e'
    • After 'j', 'l', often followed by '-a'
    • Examples: lekcja -> lekcje, kolej -> koleje, kąpiel -> kąpiele
  • Ending 'e'
    • After consonant + '-i' (usually followed by '-a')
    • Examples: babcia -> babcie, pani -> panie, kuchnia -> kuchnie
  • Ending 'y'
    • Nouns in '-cz', '-sz'
    • Examples: rzecz -> rzeczy, mysz -> myszy
  • Ending 'ie'
    • After ´ accent (accent lost, 'i' added)
    • Vowels may change from 'ó' to 'o', from 'ą' to 'ę'
    • An 'e' before last consonant may be lost
    • Examples: imię -> imiona, ramię -> ramiona, proszę -> proszęta

Neuter Nouns

  • Ending 'a'
    • Nouns in '-o', '-e', '-ie', '-'
    • Examples: jabłko -> jabłka, morze -> morza, krzesło -> krzesła
  • Ending iona
    • Most nouns in -ię extend -ię to -iona.
    • Examples: imię: imiona ramię: ramiona But: jagnię: jagnięta źrebię :źrebięta prosię:prosięta
  • Ending 'ęta'
    • Nouns in '-ę' alone extend '-ę' to '-ęta'
    • Examples: kurcz -> kurczęta, pisklę -> pisklęta

Adjectives

  • Nominative Plural
    • The nominative plural of adjectives referring to masculine objects and animals (but not to men), and to all feminine and neuter nouns is exactly as the nominative neuter singular
    • Examples: duży -> duże okno -> małe domy, młody -> młode kobieta -> młode kobiety
  • What like?
    • To ask what things/people (excluding men) are like, use 'jakie?'
    • Examples: Jakie są domy? Jakie są panie? Jakie są dzieci?

Nouns Existing Only in the Plural

  • Examples
    • Sanie -> sled, manatki -> belongings, usta -> lips, organy -> organ, skrzypce -> violin, dzieje -> history, spodnie -> trousers, plecy -> back, rajstopy -> tights, nosze -> stretcher, kajdany -> handcuffs, urodziny -> birthday, finanse -> finances, imieniny -> name day, drowdwe -> yeast, chrzciny -> christening, nożyce/nożyczki -> scissors, bliźnięta -> twins, schody -> stairs, rodzice -> parents, drzwi -> door, grabie -> rake, wrote -> gate, wakacje/ferie -> holiday(s), okulary -> spectacles, wczasy -> vacation

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 3

Plural of ‘men’ nouns

  • Nominative plural ending for ‘men’ nouns
    • Officially, the nominative plural ending for ‘men’ nouns is i.
    • However, more plurals actually end in -e, -y, and -owie, depending on the last consonant of the singular noun.
    • An e before the last consonant is usually lost in the plural.
    • Examples: dziadek (singular) -> dziadkowie (plural)
  • Consonant changes in plural nouns
    • Nouns ending in hard consonants other than k, g, r, with/without -a have the ending -i.
    • In nouns ending in t, st, ch, d, and ł, the ‘i’ softens the final consonant to ci, si, ści, dzi, and li.
    • Plural of titles, jobs, family members, nationalities, and surnames end in -owie.
    • Titles, jobs, family members, a few nationalities, and surnames (except those ending in -ski, -cki, -dzki) have the ending -iowie.
      • Examples: pan (singular) -> panowie (plural), syn (singular) -> synowie (plural)
    • After ´ accent, the ending is -iowie.
      • Examples: uczeń (singular) -> uczniowie (plural), więzień (singular) -> więźniowie (plural)
    • Plural of nationals in -in
      • Nationals in -in drop the ending.
      • Examples: Rosjanin (singular) -> Rosjanie (plural), Amerykanin (singular) -> Amerykanie (plural)
    • After k, g, and r a y is used.
    • After c, ca, iec, niec. After c, ca, iec, niec. Ending iec shortens to cy; niec to ńcy.
  • Consonant changes caused by plural ending -i and -y
    • k + cy = Polak (singular) -> Polacy (plural)
    • g + dzy = Norweg (singular) -> Norwedzy (plural)
    • r + rzy = inżynier (singular) -> inżynierzy (plural)
    • t + ci = student (singular) -> studenci (plural)
    • st + ści = dentysta (singular) -> dentyści (plural)
    • ch + si = Czech (singular) -> Czesi (plural)
    • d + dzi = sąsiad (singular) -> sąsiedzi (plural)
    • ł + li = diabeł (singular) -> diabli (plural)
  • Plural of ‘men’ adjectives
    • Nominative plural of adjectives referring to men or mixed male/female company
    • The nominative plural of adjectives referring to men or mixed male/female company ends in -i (-y after k and g).
    • Examples: młody (singular) -> młodzi (plural), mały (singular) -> mali (plural)
  • Consonant changes in plural adjectives
    • Adjectives in -oni change to -eni.
    • In ‘men’ nouns, the nominative singular and plural of adjectives in -ni and -pi become identical.
    • Examples: głupi syn (singular) -> głupi synowie (plural), ostatni chłopiec (singular) -> ostatni chłopcy (plural)
  • Examples
    • Singular and plural examples
      • Lekarz jest dobry. (The doctor is good.) -> Lekarze są dobrzy. (The doctors are good.)
      • Amerykanin jest bogaty. (The American is rich.) -> Amerykanie są bogaci. ((The) Americans are rich.)
      • To jest polski uczeń. (This is a Polish student.) -> To są polscy uczniowie. (These are Polish students.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 4

Direct Object (Feminine and Neuter)

  • Accusative Case
    • The direct object (noun or pronoun) of a verb stands in the accusative case.
    • Remnants of the accusative case remain in English pronouns, e.g. I love him. He saw me.
  • Feminine Nouns and Adjectives
    • In the accusative singular, nouns ending in a consonant do not change, e.g. rzecz, podróż, noc, miłość, twarz, kolej.
    • In the accusative plural, all nouns and adjectives are the same as the nominative plural.
  • Accusative Singular Nouns
    • Nouns in -a change -a to -ę.
      • Examples: matka: matkę, Irena: Irenę, kobieta: kobietę, babcia: babcię, szkoła: szkołę, Polska: Polskę
    • Accusative Singular Nouns (Continued)
      • Nouns in -i add -ę.
      • Examples: gospodyni: gospodynię
      • But: pani: panią
    • Accusative Singular Adjectives
      • All adjectives’ endings are -ą.
      • Examples: duża: dużą, piękna: piękną, tania: tanią, głupia: głupią, polska: polską
    • Accusative Plural Nouns and Adjectives
      • All nouns and adjectives are the same as the nominative plural.
      • Examples: Babcia jest mądra. Tomek ma mądrą babcię.
      • Grandmother is clever. Tom has a clever grandmother.
      • Torba jest duża i tania. Mam dużą tanią torbę.
      • The bag is big and cheap. I have a big cheap bag.
      • To są polskie książki. Mamy polskie książki.
      • These are Polish books. We have (some) Polish books.
    • Neuter Nouns and Adjectives
      • The accusative singular and plural is the same as the nominative.
      • Direct object (feminine, neuter)
    • Nominative Accusative
      • Drzewo jest małe, ale piękne. Mamy małe, ale piękne drzewo.
      • The tree is small but lovely. We have a small but lovely tree.
      • Duże mieszkania są drogie. Oni mają duże i drogie mieszkania.
      • Big flats are expensive. They have big expensive flats.
    • The Verb mieć (to have)
      • ja mam I have
      • my mamy we have
      • ty masz you have (sing.)
      • wy macie you have (pl.)
      • on/ona/ono ma he/she/it has
      • oni/one mają they have
    • Use oni with masc. nouns (or masc. and fem. mixed), one with fem. nouns (or fem. and neut. mixed).

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 5

Conjugation of Verbs in Polish

  • Introduction to Conjugation
    • A conjugation is a group of verbs which form their tenses identically or similarly.
    • In Polish, the conjugation of a verb is decided by the endings in the I, he and they parts of its present tense.
    • Some verbs are irregular.
  • The Largest Polish Conjugation
    • In the largest Polish conjugation, the infinitive ends in -ać.
    • The notable present tense endings are -am, -a, -ają.
    • The verb 'mieć' (Unit 4) also belongs to this conjugation.
  • Translation of Present Tense
    • One Polish present tense translates three English present tenses, e.g. live, am living, do live.
    • Nominative case personal pronouns are usually omitted, unless the meaning is unclear.
    • Useful verbs that behave like 'mieszkać' include: czytać (to read), kochać (to love), odwiedzać (to visit a person), zwiedzać (to visit a place), zamykać (to close), otwierać (to open), pamiętać (to remember), witać (to greet), upiewać (to sing), znać (to know).
  • Different Behaviors of 'Look Alike' Verbs
    • Some 'look alike' verbs do not always behave identically.
    • For example, 'spać' becomes 'śpię' (I sleep), 'lać' becomes 'leję' (I pour), and 'stać' becomes 'stoję' (I stand).
  • Verbs in -ować, -ywać, -iwać, -awać
    • Verbs in -ować, -ywać, -iwać, -awać belong to a different group (Unit 21).

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 6

Direct object of masculine nouns (accusative case)

  • Singular nouns (with or without adjectives)
    • Direct object expressed with the accusative case
    • Singular masculine 'non-alive' noun denoting an object or abstract concept
    • Accusative is identical to the nominative
  • Plural nouns (with or without adjectives)
    • Direct object is a plural masculine 'non-alive' noun or a masculine 'non-men' noun denoting a living creature
    • Accusative is identical to the nominative plural
  • Exceptions
    • Certain groups of ordinary nouns have an accusative case that ends in -a in the singular and is identical to the nominative case in the plural
    • Examples: fruit and vegetables, vehicles, units of currency, games and dances, cigarettes and brands

Non-alive (non-men) Singular

  • Direct object of masculine nouns
    • Subject: Dom jest duży. Kot jest mały. Lekarz jest dobry.
    • The house is big. The cat is small. The doctor is good.
    • Obj.: Mamy duży dom.

Non-alive (non-men) Plural

  • Direct object of masculine nouns
    • Subject: Domy są duże. Koty są małe. Lekarze są dobrzy.
    • The houses are big. The cats are small. The doctors are good.
    • Obj.: Mamy duże domy.
  • An adjective always stands in the same case as the noun to which it belongs.

Watch Out!

  • Negative verbs
    • If the verb is negative, the direct object stands in the genitive case unless the verb itself demands use of a different case.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 7

Prepositions followed by accusative case

  • Verbs followed by preposition + accusative case
    • Some Polish verbs are always followed by a preposition and the accusative case form of nouns and pronouns.
    • Na: czekać (to wait for), mieć czas (to have time for) narzekać (to complain about), zapraszać (to invite to), patrzyć (to look at)
    • Przez: iść (to go through), patrzyć (to look through), rozmawiać (to speak through)
    • W: grać (to play in)
    • Za: dziękować (to thank for), przepraszać (to apologize for)
    • O: pytać (to ask about), prosić (to ask for)
    • Po: dzwonić (to call for), iść (to go for/fetch (on foot)), jechać (to go for/fetch (by car)),
    • przez and w before difficult consonant groups.
  • Verbs and their forms
    • All the above verbs are -am, -a, -ają verbs (Unit 5) with the exception of 6, of which we need only the 'I' part in this unit:
    • dziękować: dziękuję, iść: idę, patrzyć: patrzę, dzwonić: dzwonię, jechać: jadę, prosić: proszę
  • Examples
    • kawa (coffee) - Mam czas na kawę.
    • obiad (lunch) - Dziękuję za obiad.
    • dziewczynka (girl) - Patrzę na dziewczynkę.
    • pieniądze (money) - Proszę o pieniądze.
    • karty (cards) - Grają w karty.
    • Prepositions plus accusative case
    • Examples
    • las (forest) - Idę przez las.
    • urlop (holiday) - Jadę na urlop.
    • rynek (market place) - Idę na rynek.
    • korytarz (corridor) - Idę przez korytarz.
    • Warszawa (Warsaw) - Jadę przez Warszawę.
    • piłka nożna (football) - Gramy w piłkę nożną.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 8

Direct object (singular) of masculine ‘alive’ nouns

  • Direct object of most masculine ‘alive’ nouns
    • Direct object is expressed with the accusative case.
    • Direct object of masculine singular nouns denoting men and not ending in -a (e.g. syn, dziadek), and of nouns denoting living creatures (e.g. kot, ptak) ends in -a.
    • The noun often changes its original ending slightly.
    • An e before the final consonant is often lost.
    • Vowel ą often changes to ę, especially in single-syllable words.
    • Consonants other than those listed below becomes a.
      • Examples: pan: pana, brat: brata, kelner: kelnera, królik: królika, Polak: Polaka, sąsiad: sąsiada. Note: mąż: męża ksiądz: księdza, pies: psa
    • iec / ec turns to ca.
      • Examples: chłopiec: chłopca, ojciec: ojca
    • niec turns to ńca
      • Examples: siostrzeniec: siostrzeńca
    • ek turns to ka
      • Examples: dziadek: dziadka, Janek: Janka
    • ier turns to ra
      • Examples: szwagier: szwagra. But: inżynier: inżyniera
    • Soft accent (e.g. ń, ść) turn to ia. Accent lost, -i added.
      • Examples: koń: konia, gość: gościa

Direct object of masculine ‘men’ nouns ending in -a

  • Masculine ‘men’ nouns ending in -a
    • Behave as feminine in the singular, so their direct object ends in -o.
    • Direct object (sing.) – masc. ‘alive’ nouns
    • Mój dobry polski kolega [nom.] jest chory.
    • My good Polish friend [subject] is ill.
    • Oni znają mojego* dobrego* polskiego* kolegę [acc.].
    • They know my good Polish friend [direct object].
    • * The accusative (direct object form) of adjectives referring to singular masculine ‘alive’ nouns ends in -ego.
      • It is the same as the genitive case which we meet in Unit 13.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 9

Direct Object (Plural) of Masculine 'Men' Nouns

  • Formation of Direct Object
    • The direct object (accusative case) of masculine plural nouns denoting men usually ends in -ów, though -i and -y also occur.
    • The ending is added to the nominative singular (not plural) of the noun.
    • An e before the final consonant is often lost.
    • Nouns ending in -in lose this in the plural.
  • Examples of Direct Object Endings
    • ów: Most nouns denoting males including nouns ending in -a.
    • iów: After ´ accent except ść. Accent lost, -i added.
    • y: After cz, rz, sz.
  • Examples of Direct Object Usage
    • syn: synów
    • ojciec: ojców
    • Polak: Polaków
    • chłopiec: chłopców
    • Amerykanin: Amerykanów
    • kolega: kolegów
    • dentysta: dentystów
    • maż: mężów
    • brat: braci
    • ksiądz: księży
    • człowiek: ludzi
    • kaleka: kalek
    • uczeń: uczniów
    • więzień: więźniów
    • gość: gości
    • nauczyciel: nauczycieli
    • złodziej: złodziei
    • przyjaciel: przyjaciół
    • lekarz: lekarzy
    • słuchacz: słuchaczy
    • listonosz: listonoszy
    • żołnierz: żołnierzy
  • Accusative Case of Adjectives
    • The accusative (direct object form) of adjectives referring to plural 'men' nouns ends in -ich or -ych.
    • It is the same as the genitive case.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 10

Direct Object Pronouns

  • Accusative Case Pronouns
    • Direct objects in Polish stand in the accusative case.
    • Direct object pronouns are often used to replace the direct object noun.
    • Examples:
      • We eat bread (masc.). Jemy chleb. Jemy go.
      • - Mary loves Mark (masc. 'men'). Maria kocha Marka. Maria go kocha.
      • She greets the aunt (fem.). Wita ciocię. Wita ją.
      • He loves the child (neut.). Kocha dziecko. Kocha je.
      • I eat bananas (masc.). Jem banany. Jem je.
      • I know the boys (masc. 'men'). Znam chłopców. Znam ich.
      • You visit the ladies (fem.). Odwiedzasz panie. Odwiedzasz je.
      • I love children (neut.). Kocham dzieci. Kocham je.
    • Accusative Case Pronouns:
      • me: mnie
      • you: cię / ciebie
      • him: go
      • her: ją
      • it: je
      • us: nas
      • you: was
      • them: ich
      • them (neut.): je
    • Emphatic Forms
      • The pronouns 'cię' and 'go' cannot start a sentence or carry the sentence stress.
      • In such situations, use the emphatic forms 'ciebie' and 'jego'.
    • Examples:
      • Ciebie Marek kocha (Mark loves you.) not Cię Marek kocha.
      • Jego znam. (I know him.) not Go znam.
    • Accusative Case Prepositional Pronouns
      • Preposition plus Noun
      • A different set of pronouns is used after accusative case prepositions (e.g. na, do, za).
      • They all begin with 'n', a historical remnant (e.g. on + jego = niego).
      • Only him, her, it, and them exist. For other persons, use the accusative forms shown below.
    • Examples:
      • Czekam na brata. Czekam na niego.
      • Narzekam na siostrę. Narzekam na nią.
      • Dzieci czekają na przyjaciół. Dzieci czekają na nich.
      • Marta pyta o dzieci. Marta pyta o nie.
      • Ojciec narzeka na mnie. Kolega pyta o ciebie.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 11

Possession (singular nouns)

  • English vs Polish
    • In English, possession is shown with an apostrophe or the use of 'of'.
    • In Polish, possession is shown with the genitive case.
    • Compound nouns can also be used to show possession.
  • Genitive Case of Masculine Nouns
    • Masculine nouns denoting men and not ending in -a or denoting living creatures have the genitive singular ending -a.
    • Masculine nouns denoting men and ending in -a have the genitive singular ending -y or -i.
    • Masculine nouns not denoting men and animals have the genitive singular ending -u, but some nouns use -a.
  • List A - Masculine 'non-alive' nouns taking ending -a in genitive singular
    • Fruit and vegetables, e.g. banan, pomidor
    • Vehicles, e.g. ford, mercedes
    • Units of currency, e.g. dolar, funt, frank
    • Games and dances, e.g. brydż, krakowiak
    • Cigarettes, e.g. papieros, salem
    • Tools/containers, e.g. młotek, klucz, ołówek, talerz
    • Parts of the body, e.g. nos, brzuch
    • Most Polish towns, e.g. Wrocław, Szczecin
    • All months except February [luty]
    • Units of day, e.g. dzień, wieczór
    • Nouns ending in -ek, -ik, -yk, e.g. zegarek, słoik, język
  • Genitive Case of Feminine Nouns
    • Feminine nouns not ending in -ka or -ga usually take the genitive singular ending -y.
    • Feminine nouns ending in -ka or -ga take the genitive singular ending -i.
    • Feminine nouns ending in a soft accent or in -ia also take the genitive singular ending -i.
  • Neuter Nouns
    • Neuter nouns ending in -o, -ie, or -e take the genitive singular ending -a.

Examples

  • Masculine Nouns
    • kot (cat) -> kota
    • stół (table) -> stołu
    • dzban (jug) -> dzbanu
    • samochód (car) -> samochodu
    • Feminine Nouns
    • siostra (sister) -> siostry
    • dziecko (child) -> dziecka
    • ojciec (father) -> ojca
  • Neuter Nouns
    • okno (window) -> okna
    • jabłko (apple) -> jabłka
    • krzesło (chair) -> krzesła

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 12

Possession (plural nouns); whose

  • Masculine nouns
    • The genitive plural of masculine nouns usually ends in -ów, though -y and -i also occur.
    • It is made from the genitive singular, so vowel changes which occurred there (ó to o, ą to ę, and loss of e before last consonant) recur here.
    • The genitive plural of masculine nouns denoting men is the same as the accusative plural.
    • Examples: bank: banków, pociąg: pociągów, ptak: ptaków, koniec: końców, chłopiec: chłopców, pies: psów, syn: synów, zegarek: zegarków, ząb: zębów, stół: stołów, miesiąc: miesięcy, tysiąc: tysięcy, pieniądz: pieniędzy, samochód: samochodów
    • After cz, sz, rz, ż, dż ending is y.
    • Examples:
    • klucz: kluczy, kapelusz: kapeluszy, talerz: talerzy, grosz: groszy, lekarz: lekarzy nóż: noży, garaż: garaży, płaszcz: płaszczy, kosz: koszy
    • After l, j. J merges with I ending is i.
    • Examples: hotel: hoteli, parasol: parasoli, pokój: pokoi, nauczyciel: nauczycieli, But: kraj: krajów
    • After ́ accent (accent lost, -i added) ending is i.
    • Examples: koń: koni, łabędź: łabędzi, liść: liści, gość: gości But: tydzień: tygodni ogień: ogni
  • Feminine nouns
    • Most feminine nouns form their genitive plural by dropping their -a or -i ending.
    • If the stem has one syllable, especially if it contains o or ę, a vowel change often occurs.
    • If the stem ends in a difficult consonant group, an extra e is added.
    • Nouns in -i, -ia (but not -nia or foreign nouns in -ia). -i is lost, accent added if possible.
    • Examples: gwiazda: gwiazd, ulica: ulic, żona: żon, orkiestra: orkiestr, kobieta: kobiet, chwila: chwil, droga: dróg, głowa: głów, szkoła: szkół, siostra: sióstr, ręka: rąk, córka: córek, panna: panien, cegła: cegieł, łza: łez, gospodyni: gospodyń, ziemia: ziem, pani: pań, ciocia: cioć, babcia: babć
  • Neuter nouns
    • Most neuter nouns form their genitive plural by dropping their -o, -e or -ie ending.
    • If the stem has one syllable, especially if it contains o or o, a vowel change often occurs.
    • If the stem ends in a difficult consonant group, an extra e is added.
    • Examples: drzewo: drzew, pióro: piór, jezioro: jezior, miasto: miast, serce: serc, lato: lat, morze: mórz, pole: pól, słowo: słów, święto: świat, okno: okien, jabłko: jabłek, piętro: pięter, krzesło: krzeseł, dziecko: dzieci, zdjęcie: zdjęć, mieszkanie: mieszkań, śniadanie: śniadań
    • Nouns ending in c, cz, sz, rz, ż, -nia, -cja, -sja, -zja, -ia
    • Nouns ending in c, cz, sz, rz, ż, -nia, -cja, -sja, -zja, -ia have the same genitive plural as the genitive singular.
    • Alternative 'no ending' forms for -nia nouns now occur.
    • Examples: sukien, księgarń, kuchen for sukni, księgarni, kuchni
    • Example: Kolor sukien jest piękny (The colour of the dresses is nice).
  • Less frequently occurring endings
    • Endings -ion, -nt, -i, -y, and -ów are rare.
    • Examples: imię: imion, ramię: ramion, dziewczę: dziewcząt, zwierzę: zwierząt, książę: książąt, narzędzie: narzędzi, wybrzeże: wybrzeży, muzeum: muzeów, gimnazjum: gimnazjów
  • Asking 'whose?'
    • Whose? is czyj?
    • It agrees in number and gender with the item possessed, not with the possessor.
    • Examples: Czyj dom jest stary? (Whose house is old?), To jest czyja matka? (Whose mother is that?), Czyje dziecko jest chore? (Whose child is ill?), To są czyje książki? (Whose books are these?), Czyi koledzy czekają? (Whose friends are waiting?)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 13

Genitive Case of Adjectives

  • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e
    • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e must be in the genitive case when associated with a noun in the genitive case.
    • The genitive case endings for adjectives in -y, -a, -e are: -ego (masculine singular), -ej (feminine singular), -ego (neuter singular), -ych (non-men plural).
    • The consonant changes present in the nominative plural for men do not appear in the genitive plural.
  • Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie
    • Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie (and those few ending in -i, -ia, -ie) must be in the genitive case when associated with a noun in the genitive case.
    • The genitive case endings for adjectives in -i, -a, -ie are: -iego (masculine singular), -iej (feminine singular), -iego (neuter singular), -ich (non-men plural).
  • Examples
    • Piękna pani. (The pretty lady.)
    • Oczy pięknej pani. (The pretty lady's eyes.)
    • Bogaty syn. (My rich son.)
    • Pieniądze bogatego syna. (My rich son's money.)
    • Małe siostry. (Little sisters.)
    • Matka małych sióstr. (The little sisters' mother.)
    • Polscy ludzie. (Polish people.)
    • Domy polskich ludzi. (Polish people's houses.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 14

Prepositions followed by genitive case

  • Prepositions showing static position
    • blisko, koło: near
    • naprzeciw[ko]: opposite
    • obok: beside, next to
    • u: at house, next to shop
    • daleko od: far from
    • wśród: among
    • niedaleko [od]: near
    • wzdłuż: along
    • w pobliżu: near
    • dokoła, naokoło: around
  • Examples
    • Kościół jest blisko ratusza (ratusz). The church is near the town hall.
    • Poczta jest naprzeciw apteki (apteka). The post office is opposite the chemist's.
    • Ola mieszka obok cukierni (cukiernia).
    • Bolek mieszka u babci (babcia). Ola lives next to the sweet shop. Bolek lives at his grandmother's.
    • Mieszkam daleko od kościoła (kościół). Jesteś wśród przyjaciół (przyjaciel). I live far from the church. You are among friends.
    • Park jest niedaleko [od] dworca (dworzec). Idę wzdłuż rzeki (rzeka). The park is not far from the station. I'm going along the river.
    • Domy są w pobliżu łąk (łąka). Pies lata naokoło dziecka (dziecko). The houses are near meadows. The dog is running round the child.
  • Other prepositions followed by genitive case
    • do: to, towards, into
    • podczas: during
    • od: from
    • w ciągu: in the course of
    • dla: for
    • według: according to
    • z(e): out of, from
    • zamiast: instead of
    • bez: without
    • [o]prócz: apart from, except
    • mimo: despite
    • z powodu: because of, due to
  • Examples
  • Idę od domu do domu (dom). Czytam podczas lekcji (lekcja). I go from house to house. I read during the lesson.
  • Włóż lody do lodówki (lodówka). Mam czas w ciągu tygodnia (tydzief). Put the ice cream into the fridge. I have time during the week.
  • To jest dla Pawła od brata Według Kasi zupa jest (Paweł, brat). smaczna (Kasia). This is for Paul from his brother. According to Kate the soup tastes nice.
  • Dzwonię z hotelu (hotel). Zamiast chleba jem bułkę (chleb). I ring from the hotel. Instead of bread I am eating a roll.
  • Idę do miasta bez pieniędzy (pieniądz). Oprócz matki jest tu ojciec (matka). I'm going to town without money. Apart from mother, father is here too.
  • Mimo śniegu jadę do cioci (śnieg, ciocia). Nie idę z powodu grypy (grypa). Despite the snow I'm travelling to my aunt's. I'm not going because of 'flu.
  • Prepositions plus genitive case with wracać
    • wracać z: from a place or activity
    • wracać od: from visiting a person
    • Examples
      • Wracamy z miasta/z pracy. We return from town/from work.
      • Dzieci wracają ze szkoły. The children return from school.
      • Wracam od wujka/od dentysty. I return from uncle's/from the dentist's.
      • Magda wraca od koleżanek. Magda returns from her girlfriends' [house, understood].

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 15

Verbs with Genitive Case Object and Prepositional Pronouns in Polish

  • Genitive Case:
    • The genitive case is crucial in Polish, indicating possession and serving as the direct object after certain positive and all negative verbs unless a different case is required. Four common verbs using the genitive case are "słuchać" (to listen to), "szukać" (to look for), "potrzebować" (to need), and "używać" (to use).
  • Examples of Genitive Case:
    • Słucham radia. (I listen to the radio.)
    • Szukam pracy. (I’m looking for a job.)
    • Potrzebuję spokoju. (I need peace.)
    • Używam farby. (I use paint.)
    • The direct object of these genitive case verbs can be replaced by genitive case pronouns. Pronouns like "mnie," "ciebie," "go," "jego," "jej," and "ich" are used.
  • Emphatic Forms:
    • Pronouns "ciebie" and "jego" are used in emphatic forms when starting a sentence or carrying sentence stress.
    • Examples with Pronouns:
  • Examples
    • Słucham go. (I listen to him.)
    • Szukam jej. (I’m looking for her.)
    • Potrzebuję ich. (I need them.)
    • Używam go. (I use it.)
  • Genitive Case Prepositional Pronouns:
    • A different set of pronouns is used after genitive case prepositions (e.g., "bez," "dla," "od"). These pronouns, starting with 'n,' include "mnie," "ciebie," "niego," "niej," "nas," "was," "nich," and "nich." 
  • Examples:
    • Piotr ma prezent dla niego. (Piotr has a gift for him.)
    • Idę do miasta bez niej. (I am going to the city without her.)
    • Mam list od nich. (I have a letter from them.)
    • Note: For pronunciation, an 'e' is added to "bez," "od," and "z" before "mnie."

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

 

Jednostka 16

Verbs with Present Tense -em, -e, -eją/-edzą

  • Verbs in -ieć:
    • Verbs in this group end in -ieć, and they have two subdivisions based on the ending used for the third person plural (they).
    • Examples include "umieć" (to know how to) and "rozumieć" (to understand).
  • Conjugation of "umieć" (to know how to):
    • ja umiem
    • ty umiesz
    • on/ona/ono umie
    • my umiemy
    • wy umiecie
    • oni/one umieją
  • Conjugation of "rozumieć" (to understand):
    • ja rozumiem
    • ty rozumiesz
    • on/ona/ono rozumie
    • my rozumiemy
    • wy rozumiecie
    • oni/one rozumieją
  • Verbs "wiedzieć" (to know a fact) and "jeść" (to eat):

 

  • Conjugation of "wiedzieć":
    • ja wiem
    • ty wiesz
    • on/ona/ono wie
    • my wiemy
    • wy wiecie
    • oni/one wiedzą
  • Conjugation of "jeść":
    • ja jem
    • ty jesz
    • on/ona/ono je
    • my jemy
    • wy jecie
    • oni/one jedzą
  • Note: "Wiedzieć" contrasts with "znać" (to know a person, country, language).

Subordinate Clauses with Link Words:

  • Many verbs of knowing, remembering, understanding, asking, and believing introduce subordinate clauses starting with link words.
  • Examples include "gdzie" (where), "kiedy" (when), and "że" (that).
  • Examples:
    • Wiem, gdzie mieszkasz. (I know where you live.)
    • Pamiętam, kiedy masz urlop. (I remember when your holiday is.)
    • Rozumiem, że jesteś chory. (I understand that you are ill.)
    • In subordinate clauses, the verb often stands right after the link word, and the comma is necessary. Unlike English, the word 'that' cannot be omitted.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 17

 

Cardinal Numbers 1 to 4

  • ‘One’ (jeden/jedna/jedno)
    • Agrees in gender and case with associated noun
    • Also means ‘a certain’
    • Plural form jedne/jedni means ‘some’
    • Use jedne before ‘plural only’ nouns
    • Examples: jedne spodnie (one pair of trousers)
    • Singular: Masc. Fem. Neut. Non-men
      • jeden jedna jedno jedne jedni
    • jeden [non-alive] jedna jedno jedne jednych jednego [alive]
    • jednego jednej jednego jednych
    • Examples: jeden brat, kot, stół (one brother, cat, table)
    • Examples: jedna siostra, jedno dziecko, jedne drzwi (one sister, child, door)
    • Examples: Jedni chłopcy czekajn (Some boys are waiting)
    • Examples: Czekam na jednego pana, jedną panin, jedno dziecko (I’m waiting for one gentleman, one lady, one child)
    • Examples: Piszę do jednej córki, jednego wnuka (I write to one daughter, grandson)
    • Examples: Jedne dzieci śpiewają (Some children sing)
    • Jedyny, jedyna, jedyne means only one
    • Jeszcze jeden/jedna/jedne means one more
    • Examples: To jest mój jedyny długopis (This is my only pen)
    • Examples: Mam jeszcze jeden długopis (I have one more pen)
  • ‘Two’ (dwaj/dwie/dwa)
    • Agrees in gender and case with associated noun
    • For groups of mixed gender, children, young animals, and ‘plural only’ nouns, there is a collective form
    • (men) Masc. (non-men) and neut. Fem. Collective
    • dwaj* dwa dwie dwoje**
    • dwóch dwa dwie dwoje
    • dwóch dwóch dwojga
    • Examples: dwaj synowie dwa ołówki dwie matki dwa drzewa dwoje dzieci dwoje drzwi (Two sons, pencils, mothers, trees, children, doors)
    • Examples: Czekam na dwóch panów, dwie panie, dwoje dzieci (I’m waiting for two gentlemen, ladies, children)
  • ‘Three’ and ‘Four’ (trzej/trzy and czterej/cztery)
    • Nouns divide into two groups: masculine (men) and other nouns
    • Differences exist only in the nominative and accusative cases
    • For groups of mixed gender, children, young animals, and ‘plural only’ nouns, there are collective forms
    • For * and ** see under dwaj above
    • (men) Other nouns Collective
    • trzej* czterej* trzy cztery troje** czworo**
    • trzech czterech trzy cztery troje czworo
    • trzech czterech trzech czterech trojga czworga
    • Examples: trzej/czterej panowie (three/four men)
    • Examples: Mam trzech synów, cztery córki (I have three sons, four daughters)
    • Examples: Pokój dla trzech/ czterech panów, pas (A room for three/ four men, ladies)
    • Examples: Mam troje/czworo dzieci (I have three/four children)
    • Examples: trzy/cztery koty, kobiety, okna (three/four cats, women, windows)
    • Examples: Pokój ma troje drzwi (The room has three doors)
    • Examples: Prezent od trojga/ czworga dzieci (A present from three/ four children)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 18

Numbers 5 to 20

  • Genitive Plural of Nouns
    • Note the special form for 'men' nouns: pięciu, sześciu, siedmiu, ośmiu, dziewięciu, dziesięciu, jedenastu, dwunastu, trzynastu, czternastu, piętnastu, szesnastu, siedemnastu, osiemnastu, dziewiętnastu, dwudziestu.
  • Numbers 5 to 20
    • 5 - pięć
    • 11 - jedenaście
    • 17 - siedemnaście
    • 6 - sześć
    • 12 - dwanaście
    • 18 - osiemnaście
    • 7 - siedem
    • 13 - trzynaście
    • 19 - dziewiętnaście
    • 8 - osiem
    • 14 - czternaście
    • 20 - dwadzieścia
  • Unusual Plurals
    • dziesięć - ten
    • tydzień - week
    • rok - year (pl. lata = years)
    • miesiąc - month
    • dwa dni, tygodnie - two days, weeks
    • miesiące, lata (nom.) - pięć dni, tygodni, miesięcy, lat (gen.) - five days, weeks, months, years

Indefinite Numbers

  • Indefinite Numbers
    • Some numbers are indefinite and have a special form in the nominative and accusative cases for 'men' nouns.
    • Indefinite numbers are regarded as quantities and are followed by the genitive case of the noun.
    • When acting as subjects, they take a singular verb.
  • Indefinite Numbers Examples
    • A few - paru
    • Several - kilku
    • Many - wielu
    • So many - tylu
    • How many? - ilu
    • (other nouns) paro, kilka, wiele, tyle, ile
  • Examples of Indefinite Numbers
    • Nom./Acc. (masc. men): Jest wielu uczniów i wiele uczennic. - There are many boy and girl pupils.
    • Acc.: Mam parę kubków i wiele filiżanek. - I have a few mugs and many cups.
    • Gen.: Mam książki dla kilku/paru dzieci. - I have books for several/a few children.

Expressions of Quantity

  • Expressions of Quantity
    • Expressions of quantity are followed by the genitive case of the noun.
    • There is no word for 'of'.
  • Examples of Expressions of Quantity
    • dużo* - a lot of
    • trochę - a little
    • dużo - quite a lot of
    • mało - little/few
    • Genitive after 'some': A noun following 'some' stands in the genitive case.
  • Examples of Expressions of Quantity
    • Dodaj soli [from sól] do zupy. - Add some salt to the soup.
    • Mogę pożyczyć mąki [from mąka]? - Can I borrow some flour?

Containers and Measures

  • Containers and Measures
    • Containers and measures are all followed by the genitive case of the noun.
  • Examples of Containers and Measures
    • Masculine: bochenek chleba - loaf of bread, kubek jagód - mug of berries, kawałek mięsa - piece of meat, karton soku - carton of juice, dzbanek mleka - jug of milk, kieliszek wina - glass of wine, słoik dżemu - jar of jam, wazon kwiatów - vase of flowers, koszyk grzybów - basket of mushrooms, talerz zupy - plate of soup, kilo(gram) sera - kilo of cheese, litr soku - litre of juice, pół kilo(grama) - 1/2 kilo, pół litra - 1/2 litre, ćwierć kilo(grama) - 1/4 kilo, ćwierć litra - 1/4 litre
    • Feminine: butelka piwa - bottle of beer, kromka chleba - slice of bread, filiżanka kawy - cup of coffee, puszka ryby - tin of fish, łyżka miodu - spoon of honey, paczka herbaty - packet of tea, flaszka wody - bottle of water, skrzynka jabłek - crate of apples, tubka kremu - tube of cream, kostka masła - cube of butter, para majtek - pair of pants
    • Neuter: pudełko zapałek - box of matches, wiadro wody - pail of water

Verbs with Present Tense Endings -uję, -ujesz, -uje, -ujemy, -ujecie, -ują

  • Verbs with Present Tense Endings -uję, -ujesz, -ujN
    • Many verbs have the infinitive -ować and present tense endings -uję, -ujesz, -uje, -ujemy, -ujecie, -ują.
  • Examples of Verbs with Present Tense Endings
    • kupować (buy):
      • ja - kupuję
      • ty - kupujesz
      • on/ona/ono - kupuje
      • my - kupujemy
      • wy - kupujecie
      • oni/one - kupują
    • pakować (pack):
      • ja - pakuję
      • ty - pakujesz
      • on/ona/ono - pakuje
      • my - pakujemy
      • wy - pakujecie
      • oni/one - pakują

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 19

Ordinal numbers

  • Singular ordinal numbers
    • Ordinal numbers behave like adjectives, agreeing in number, gender, and case with the noun following.
    • They are used mainly in the singular.
    • Special forms for plural 'men' nouns do exist, i.e. pierwsi, drudzy, trzeci, czwarci panowie. Only pierwsi and drudzy are used much.
    • 1st - pierwszy, -a, -e
    • 2nd - drugi, -a, -ie
    • 3rd - trzeci, -ia, -ie
    • 4th - czwarty, -a, -e
    • 5th - piąty
    • 6th - szósty
    • 7th - siódmy
    • 8th - ósmy
    • 9th - dziewiąty
    • 10th - dziesiąty
    • 11th - jedenasty
    • 12th - dwunasty
    • 13th - trzynasty
    • 14th - czternasty
    • 15th - piętnasty
    • 16th - szesnasty
    • 17th - siedemnasty
    • 18th - osiemnasty
    • 19th - dziewiętnasty
    • 20th - dwudziesty
  • Plural ordinal numbers
    • Special forms for plural 'men' nouns exist, i.e. pierwsi, drudzy, trzeci, czwarci panowie.
    • Only pierwsi and drudzy are used much.

Usage of ordinal numbers

  • Nominative case
    • Ordinal numbers are used to describe the order of things.
    • They agree in number, gender, and case with the noun following.
    • Example: Trzecia nagroda jest marna. (The third prize is poor.)
    • Example: Ostatni list jest smutny. (The last letter is sad.)
    • Example: Następne miasto jest stare. (The next town is old.)
  • Accusative case
    • Ordinal numbers are used to indicate the order of things in the accusative case.
    • Example: Mam pierwszą nagrodę. (I have the first prize.)
    • Example: Czekam na drugi list. (I'm waiting for my second letter.)
    • Example: Kiedy masz następny egzamin? (When is your next exam?)
  • Genitive case
    • Ordinal numbers are used to indicate the order of things in the genitive case.
    • Example: Słucham trzeciego programu. (I listen to Programme 3.)
    • Example: Piszę do trzeciej firmy. (I'm writing to the third company.)
    • Example: Szukam następnego numeru. (I'm looking for the next number.)

Name and age

  • Stating first name
    • To state your first name, use 'mieć' + 'na imię'.
    • Example: Mam na imię Anna. (My name is Anna.)
    • Example: On ma na imię Jan. (He is called John.)
  • Stating surname
    • To state your surname, say 'Nazywam się...' or 'Moje nazwisko jest...'.
    • Example: Nazywam się Wood. (My surname is Wood.)
    • Example: Moje nazwisko jest Wood. (My surname is Wood.)
  • Stating age
    • To state your age, use 'mieć' + [cardinal number] + correct word for month(s) or year(s).
    • Example: Wojtek ma miesiąc. (Wojtek is one month old.)
    • Example: Blivniota ma 1 rok. (Blivniota is 1 year old.)
    • Example: Dzieci mają trzy miesiące. (The children are three months old.)
    • Example: Piotrek ma dwa lata. (Piotrek is two years old.)
    • Example: Marta ma sześć miesięcy. (Marta is six months old.)
    • Example: Wnuk ma osiem lat i dziewięć miesięcy. (The grandson is eight years and nine months old.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 20

Questions with 'czy'

  • Yes/No Questions

    • Czy znasz Janka? - Do you know John?
    • Czy jest pan Smutek? - Is Mr. Smutek here?
    • Czy oni są bogaci? - Are they rich?
    • Czy są już goście? - Are the guests here yet?
    • Czy umiesz pływać? - Can you swim?
    • Czy pani ma syna? - Do you have a son?
  • Statement Questions

    • Mama jest chora? - Is (your) mom ill?
    • Czekasz na pociąg? - Are you waiting for a train?
  • Conjunction 'czy'

    • Nie wiem, czy jest Karol. - I don’t know if Charles is here.
    • Nie pamiętam, czy on ma dom. - I don’t remember whether he has a house.

Question Words

  • Kto? Who?

    • Kto to jest? - Who’s that?
    • Kto ma samochód? - Who has a car?
  • Co? What?

    • Co to jest? - What’s this?
    • Co kupujesz? - What are you buying?
  • Gdzie? Where?

    • Gdzie jest bank? - Where is the bank?
    • Gdzie mieszka Ola? - Where does Ola live?
  • Kiedy? When?

    • Kiedy masz egzamin? - When is your exam?
    • Kiedy wraca Antek? - When does Antek return?
  • Jak? How?

    • Jak się pan/pani ma? - How are you?
    • Jak masz na imię? - What’s your name?
  • Dlaczego? Why?

    • Dlaczego narzekasz? - Why do you complain?
    • Dlaczego jesteś zły? - Why are you angry?

Nominative and Accusative Forms

  • Kto?

    • Kto? is the nominative case form.
  • Co?

    • Co? serves for nominative and accusative.
  • Examples

    • Examples with 'Kto'
      • Pamiętam, kto ma książkę. - I remember who has the book.
    • Examples with 'Co'
      • Wiemy, co kupujecie. - We know what you are buying.
      • Czy wiesz, jak on ma na imię? - Do you know what his name is?
    • Examples with 'Dlaczego'
      • Dzieci pytają, dlaczego matka jest smutna. - The children ask why their mother is sad.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 21

Verbs ending in -ować, -iwać, -awać, -ywać; verb aspects

Verbs with present tense endings -uję, -ujesz, -uje, -ujemy, -ujecie, -ują

  • dziękować (thank)
  • obiecywać (promise)
  • oczekiwać (expect)

Useful verbs with present tense endings -uję, -ujesz, -uje, -ujemy, -ujecie, -ują

  • budować (build)
  • informować (inform)
  • gotować (cook)
  • malować (paint)
  • kupować (buy)
  • próbować (try, taste)
  • pracować (work)
  • szanować (respect)
  • studiować (study)
  • chorować (be ill)
  • całować (kiss)
  • kierować (drive)
  • pilnować (look after)
  • kosztować (cost, taste)
  • rezerwować (reserve)
  • podróżować (journey)
  • telefonować (telephone)
  • rysować (draw)
  • fotografować (photograph)
  • wartować (joke)
  • otrzymywać (get)
  • utrzymywać (maintain)
  • wykonywać (perform a function)
  • wychowywać (bring up (a child))
  • pokazywać (show)
  • obsługiwać (serve, wait on)
  • zatrzymywać (stop)
  • podskakiwać (jump, rise (prices))

Verbs in -ować, -iwać, -awać, -ywać with present tense endings -am, -asz, -a

  • dawać (give)
  • wstawać (get up)

Useful verbs in -ować, -iwać, -awać, -ywać with present tense endings -am, -asz, -a

  • dodawać (add to)
  • nadawać (send (a letter), broadcast)
  • rozdawać (distribute)
  • podawać (hand, serve)
  • oddawać (give back)
  • zostawać (remain (over))
  • zdawać (sit (an exam))
  • stawać (make a planned stop)
  • sprzedawać (sell)
  • dostawać (receive)

Verb aspects

  • Polish has fewer tenses than English.
  • Most Polish verbs have two forms, imperfective and perfective.
  • Imperfective verbs express action in progress, long-lasting action, habitual action.
  • Perfective verbs express a single action that occurred once in the past or will occur once in the future.
  • Imperfective verbs mean 'to be doing something'.
  • Perfective verbs mean 'to have done something'.

Examples of imperfective and perfective verbs

  • Imperfective: kupować (to be buying), Perfective: kupić (to have bought)
  • Imperfective: pomagać (to be helping), Perfective: pomóc (to have helped)
  • Imperfective: robić (to be doing), Perfective: zrobić (to have done)
  • Imperfective: pisać (to be writing), Perfective: napisać (to have written)

Adverbs and imperfective verbs

  • Imperfective verbs are often used with adverbs that express frequency or current action.
  • Examples of adverbs: często (often), już (already), ciągle (still, all the time), rzadko (rarely), dzisiaj (today), teraz (now), zawsze (always), na razie (right now), czasem (sometimes), zwyczajnie (usually)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 22

Negation

  • Negating a verb with no direct object
  • Put 'nie' before the verb.
  • Example: Nie idę do kina. (I'm not going to the cinema.)
  • Example: Nie wiem, gdzie on mieszka. (I don't know where he lives.)
  • Example: Bank nie jest czynny. (The bank is not open.)
  • Negating a verb with a direct object
  • Put 'nie' before the verb.
  • Put the direct object into the genitive case, unless the verb requires a different case.
  • The direct object can be a noun (with/without an adjective) or a pronoun.
  • Example: Nie kocham babci. (I don't love Grandmother.)
  • Example: Nie kupuję jabłek. (I don't buy apples.)
  • Example: Nie mam sióstr. (I have no sisters.)
  • Accusative case of singular masculine 'alive' noun or plural 'men' noun
  • The accusative case of a singular masculine 'alive' noun or a plural 'men' noun is already identical to the genitive case, so the noun does not change after a negative verb.
  • Example: Nie mam brata. (I don't have a brother.)
  • Example: Nie znam braci. (I don't know the brothers.)
  • Example: Nie mam kotów. (I have no cats.)
  • Answering in the negative
  • In negative answers, repeat 'nie'.
  • Use the genitive for the direct object.
  • Example: Czy ojciec pracuje? Nie. On nie pracuje. (Does the father work? No. He doesn't work.)
  • Example: Czy pan zna Kraków? Nie. Nie znam Krakowa. (Do you know Krakow? No. I don't know Krakow.)
  • Example: Państwo mają rodzinę? Nie. Nie mamy rodziny. (Do you have a family? No. We don't have a family.)
  • Double negatives
  • The negative forms of 'kto' (who), 'co' (what), 'kiedy' (when), 'gdzie' (where) are 'nikt' (no one), 'nic' (nothing), 'nigdy' (never), 'nigdzie' (nowhere).
  • The verb is negated with 'nie' as above.
  • Example: Kto ma czas? Nikt nie ma czasu. (Who has time? No one has time.)
  • Example: Co jest tanie? Nic nie jest tanie. (What is cheap? Nothing is cheap.)
  • Example: Kto tu mieszka? Nikt tu nie mieszka. (Who lives here? No one lives here.)
  • Conjunctions
  • Coordinating conjunctions
    • 'i' (and) [linking]
    • 'albo/lub' (or)
    • 'a' (and) [contrasting]/but
    • 'albo . . . , albo' (either . . . or)
    • 'ale' (but)
    • 'oraz' (and) [at the same time]
    • 'ani . . . , ani' (neither . . . nor)
  • There is/are
  • Positive 'there is/are'
    • 'jest' (there is)
    • 'są' (there are)
    • Example: U babci jest duża kuchnia. (There is a big kitchen at Granny's.)
    • Example: Tu są ładne ogrody. (There are nice gardens here.)
  • Negative 'there is/are'
    • Use the singular 'ma' of the verb 'mieć' (to have).
    • Use the genitive case.
    • Example: U babci nie ma dużej kuchni. (There is no big kitchen at Granny's.)
    • Example: Tu nie ma ładnych ogrodów. (There are no nice gardens here.)
  • Negative of always, everyone, everything, everywhere
  • Positive statement containing 'zawsze' (always)
    • Negate with 'nigdy' (never).
    • Use the genitive case for the direct object.
    • Example: Nigdy nie kupuję jabłek. (I never buy apples.)
    • Example: Nigdzie nie ma parków. (There are no parks anywhere.)
  • 'Something/nothing' plus adjective
  • 'coś' (something) is 'co' with an extra 'ś'.
  • It behaves like 'co' but always has a genitive case adjective.
  • Example: Mam coś nowego. (I have something new.)
  • Example: Nie mam nic nowego. (I have nothing new.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

 

Jednostka 23

Indirect Object in Polish

  • Dative for Indirect Object
  • The indirect object specifies 'to' or 'for' someone.
  • In Polish, these words are omitted, and the indirect object stands in the dative case.
  • We can often reverse the order of direct and indirect objects.
  • Dative Singular
  • In the dative singular, many consonants change when the dative ending is -e.
  • These changes also occur in the locative case and become familiar over time.
  • If you cannot find a word in the dictionary, try applying the change backward.
  • Masculine Singular Indirect Object
  • The dative singular ending of masculine nouns is usually -owi, though -u, -e, and -ie also occur.
  • Penultimate e is usually lost.
  • An ó in the final syllable usually becomes o, and an ą usually becomes ę.
  • Feminine Singular
  • The dative singular of feminine nouns that end in certain consonants + -a has a consonant change.
  • For example, ła becomes le, sła becomes śle, and ta becomes cie.
  • However, in all other feminine nouns, the dative singular is like the genitive case.
  • Neuter Singular
  • Most neuter nouns take the ending -u in the dative singular.
  • However, in practice, the indirect object is rarely a neuter noun unless it is a person or animal.
  • Nouns in -um do not change.
  • Verbs with Indirect Object
  • Many Polish verbs take an indirect object, and some also take a direct object.
  • Some examples of verbs that take an indirect object are: dawać (give), dokuczać (annoy), odpowiadać (reply), podawać (hand), opowiadać (tell a story), sprzedawać (sell), pomagać (help), dziękować (thank), powyczać (lend), kupować (buy), ufać (trust), obiecywać (promise), and więcej (hand, present).
  • Verbs with Present Tense Endings
  • This group of verbs usually ends in -yq, though some -eq verbs also belong here.
  • The verb stem often ends in -cz, -szcz, -sz, -ż, -żdż, or -rz.
  • No consonant or vowel changes occur in any tense.
  • Dative Case of Adjectives (Singular)
  • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e differ from those in -i, -a, -ie.
  • Masculine and neuter singular are identical.
  • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e have different endings in the dative case compared to adjectives in -i, -a, -ie.
  • Dative Case of Kto/Co/Nikt/Nic
  • Kto becomes komu; co becomes czemu.
  • Nikt becomes nikomu; nic becomes niczemu.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 24

Indirect Object (Plural); Dative Case Prepositions

Dative Plural Endings

  • The dative plural has the same set of endings for all genders.
  • It is made from the genitive singular without its ending.
  • Vowel changes present in the genitive singular recur here.
  • Examples: pies: ps-a gives psom; wróg: wrog-a gives wrogom; gałąź: gałęzi gives gałęziom
  • Do not make the dative plural from the nominative plural; many 'men' nouns have a consonant change here.
  • Examples: Polak: Polacy

Dative Plural Endings

  • Most nouns ending in a consonant without an accent take the ending -om.
  • Nouns in -in lose this ending.
  • Examples: ojciec: ojcom; kolega: kolegom; maj: majom; okno: oknom; wujek: wujkom; matka: matkom; muzeum: muzeom; chłopiec: chłopcom
  • Exceptions: dziecko: dzieciom; przyjaciel: przyjaciołom; ludzie (pl.): ludziom; rodzice (pl.): rodzicom
  • After an accent (accent lost, I added), nouns take the ending -iom.
  • Examples: koń: końmi; uczeń: uczniami; gałąź: gałęziami; gość: gośćmi; łódź: łodziami; pięć: pięciami; dzień: dniami; tydzień: tygodniami
  • Nouns in -i, -ia, -ie take the ending -iom.
  • Examples: pani: paniom; babcia: babciom; zdjęcie: zdjęciom; kuchnia: kuchniom
  • Nouns in -io add -om to the true stem ending -ion.
  • Examples: imię: imionom; ramię: ramionom
  • Nouns in -o add -om to the true stem ending -ot.
  • Examples: zwierzę: zwierzętom; dziewczę: dziewczętom; kurczę: kurczętom

Example Usage

  • Nominative: Sąsiedzi są biedni.
  • Dative: Pożyczam sąsiadom samochód.
  • Translation: My neighbors are poor. I lend my neighbors my car.
  • Nominative: Koledzy nie mają pieniędzy.
  • Dative: Kupuję kolegom obiad.
  • Translation: My friends have no money. I buy lunch for my friends.
  • Nominative: Mężczyźni pracują.
  • Dative: Podaję mężczyznom herbatę.
  • Translation: The men are working. I give the men some tea.
  • Nominative: Matki są miłe.
  • Dative: Córki dają matkom kwiaty.
  • Translation: Mothers are kind. Daughters give flowers to mothers.

Dative Case of Adjectives (Plural)

  • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e
    • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e take the ending -ym in the dative plural.
  • Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie
    • Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie, and those few ending in -i, -ia, -ie take the ending -im in the dative plural.

Dative Case Prepositions

Dzięki

  • Dzięki are followed by the dative case.
  • It means 'thanks to', 'due to', 'as a result of'.
  • Example: Dzięki ojcu mam dom. (I have a house thanks to my father.)

Ku

  • Ku is followed by the dative case.
  • It means 'towards'.
  • It is often replaced by do + genitive, or the sentence is rephrased.
  • Examples: Policjanci działają przeciw złodziejom. (Policemen oppose thieves.)
  • Droga prowadzi ku wiosce. (The road leads to the village.)

Przeciw

  • Przeciw is followed by the dative case.
  • It means 'against', 'in opposition to'.
  • Example: Oficer nie działa wbrew rozkazom. (An officer does not act contrary to orders.)

Wbrew

  • Wbrew is followed by the dative case.
  • It means 'contrary to'.
  • Example: Oficer nie działa wbrew rozkazom. (An officer does not act contrary to orders.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 25

Verbs with Present Tense -ę, -y, -ą

Verbs ending in -yć:

  • słyszeć (hear)
  • leżeć (lie)
  • krzyczeć (shout)

Verbs ending in -eć:

  • uczyć (teach)
  • kończyć (end)
  • straszyć (frighten)

Conjugation of Verbs

First Person Singular

  • słyszę
  • leżę
  • krzyczę

Second Person Singular

  • słyszysz
  • leżysz
  • krzyczysz

Third Person Singular

  • słyszy
  • leży
  • krzyczy

First Person Plural

  • słyszymy
  • leżymy
  • krzyczymy

Second Person Plural

  • słyszycie
  • leżycie
  • krzycie

Third Person Plural

  • słyszą
  • leżą
  • krzyczą

Examples of Usage

słyszeć (hear)

  • Słyszymy muzykę. (We hear the music.)

leżeć (lie)

  • Kot leży obok psa. (The cat is lying beside the dog.)

krzyczeć (shout)

  • Ojciec krzyczy [na matkę]. (Father shouts [at mother].)

uczyć (teach)

  • Uczę siostrę polskiego. (I teach my sister Polish.)
  • Uczę siostrę tańczyć. (I teach my sister to dance.)

kończyć (end)

  • Kończymy czytanie. (We end reading.)

straszyć (frighten)

  • Pies straszy dziecko. (The dog frightens the child.)

Other Verbs in This Group

  • liczyć (count)
  • suszyć (dry)
  • ważyć (weigh)
  • patrzeć (look)
    • Has an alternative infinitive: patrzeć.
  • tańczyć (dance)
  • znaczyć (mark, mean)
    • Co to znaczy? (What does it mean?)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 26

Dative Case of Pronouns

Dative Case Pronouns:

  • Dative case pronouns replace the indirect object, which contains the meaning 'to' and 'for'.
  • Mi, ci, mu, jej, mu, nam, wam, im, im
  • Emphatic forms: mnie, tobie, jemu
  • Examples:
    • Kupuję ojcu krawat. (I buy a tie for father.)
    • Daję matce kwiaty. (I give flowers to mother.)
    • Kupuję mu krawat. (I buy a tie for him.)
    • Daję jej kwiaty. (I give flowers to her.)
    • Nie ufam mu. (I don't trust him.)
    • Wierzę ci. (I believe you.)
    • Nie ufam jemu. (I don't trust him.)
    • Tobie nie wierzę. (I don't believe you.)
    • Oddaję kolegom rower. (I return the bike to my friends.)
    • Pożyczam mu książki. (He lends me books.)
    • Oddaję im rower. (I return the bike to them.)
    • Mnie nie pożycza książek. (He doesn't lend me books.)

Dative Case Prepositional Pronouns:

  • A different set of pronouns is used after dative case prepositions.
  • mnie, tobie, niemu, niej, niemu, nam, wam, nim, nim
  • Examples:
    • Dzięki bratu jestem bogaty. (I am rich thanks to my brother.)
    • Dzięki niemu jestem bogaty. (I am rich thanks to him.)
    • Dzięki sąsiadce mam dom. (I have a house thanks to my neighbor.)
    • Dzięki niej mam dom. (I have a house thanks to her.)
    • Dzięki kolegom mamy pracę. (We have work for our friends.)
    • Dzięki nim mamy pracę. (We have work for them.)
    • Policjant działa przeciw złodziejowi/złodziejom. (The policeman acts against the thief/thieves.)
    • Policjant działa przeciw niemu/nim. (The policeman acts against him.)

Expressing Emotions and Body Temperature

  • Polish often uses impersonal expressions to express emotions and body temperature.
  • The feeling is expressed with an adverb, and the person is in the dative case.
  • Examples:
    • Jest mi źle/słabo. (I feel ill/faint.)
    • Jest mi głupio. (I feel stupid.)
    • Tomkowi jest duszno. (Tom needs some air.)
    • Smutno mi (jest). (I feel sad.)
    • Jest nam tam miło. (We like being there.)
    • Paniom jest wesoło. (The ladies enjoy it.)
    • Jest jej zimno/gorąco. (She's cold/hot.)
    • Im jest tam dobrze/niedobrze. (They are happy/unhappy there.)
    • Łatwo mu jest rysować. (He finds drawing easy.)
    • Trudno (jest) żyć bez pieniędzy. (It's difficult to live without money.)

Other Impersonal Expressions

  • Some impersonal expressions contain the reflexive pronoun się or are followed by the genitive case.
  • Examples:
    • Nudzi mi się. (I am bored.)
    • Chce mi się jeść. (I want to eat.)
    • Brak mi (jest) przyjaciół. (I'm short of friends.)
    • Zdaje mi się, że jest mróz. (I think that there's a frost.)
    • Brakuje ci czasu. (You lack time.)
    • Jest mu wstyd, że jest biedny. (He's ashamed of being poor.)
    • Żal nam (jest) córki. (We feel sorry for the daughter.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 27

Reflexive Verbs

Introduction:

  • Reflexive verbs reflect their action back to the subject.
  • Polish has many reflexive verbs, occurring in all verb groups and obeying the tense rules for non-reflexive verbs.
  • The reflexive pronoun "się" translates to ‘myself’, ‘yourself’, etc. It never changes.

Examples of Reflexive Verbs:

  • ubierać się (get dressed)
  • uczyć się (learn)
  • bawić się (play)

Conjugation of Reflexive Verbs:

  • ja ubieram się
  • ty ubierasz się
  • on/ona/ono ubiera się
  • my ubieramy się
  • wy ubieracie się
  • oni/one ubierają się

Other Reflexive Verbs:

  • Some verbs are always reflexive, e.g., bać się (be afraid), opiekować się (look after).
  • Other verbs have two forms – ordinary and reflexive – with different meanings.
    • Examples: uczyć (teach) – uczyć się (learn); nadawać (post) – nadawać się (be suitable)

Verbs with Present Tense in -ię/, -i, -ią

Introduction:

  • Many Polish verbs, including many reflexive verbs, end in -bić, -mić, -nić, -pić, or -wić.
  • The "i" of the infinitive ending remains in the present tense.

Examples of Verbs:

  • robić (make, do)
  • mówić (say)
  • dzwonić (ring)
  • wątpić (doubt)

Conjugation of Verbs:

  • ja -ę robię
  • ty -isz robisz
  • on/ona/ono -i robi
  • my -imy robimy
  • wy -icie robicie
  • oni/one -ą robią

Verbs with Present Tense in -ę, -i, -ą

Introduction:

  • Some verbs, including many reflexive verbs, end in -cić, -lić, -dzić.
  • They lose the "i" in the ja and oni parts.

Examples of Verbs:

  • płacić (pay)
  • chodzić (go, walk)
  • chwalić (praise)

Conjugation of Verbs:

  • ja -ę płacę
  • ty -isz płacisz
  • on/ona/ono -i płaci
  • my -imy płacimy
  • wy -icie płacicie
  • oni/one -ą płacą

Reciprocal "się"

Introduction:

  • "się" also translates to ‘each other/one another’.

Examples:

  • Kochają się. (They love each other.)
  • Znamy się. (We know one another.)

Position of "się"

Introduction:

  • Usually, "się" stands after the first stressed word in the sentence or after/before its verb.
  • In very short sentences, "się" can stand at the end.

Examples:

  • Kasia martwi się. (Kate is worried.)
  • Siostra nazywa się Irena Malicka. (My sister is called Irene Malicka.)
  • Dzieci czują się źle. (The children are ill.)
  • Jak się pan/pani ma? (How are you?)
  • Jan cieszy się. (John is happy.)

Emphatic Self

Introduction:

  • The emphatic ‘self’ is translated by the adjective "sam," which also means ‘alone’.

Examples:

  • Sam nie wiem, gdzie mieszkają. (I, myself, don’t know where they live.)
  • Matka sama jest biedna. (Mother is poor herself.)
  • Oni sami nic nie wiedzą. (They, themselves, know nothing.)
  • Idę sam. (I’m going by myself.)
  • Ola sama chodzi do szkoły. (Ola goes to school by herself.)
  • Dziecko samo się ubiera. (The child dresses by itself.)
  • Tomek bawi się sam. (Tom plays alone.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 28

Instrumental Case

Introduction:

  • The instrumental case has no equivalent in English.
  • It is used for the noun after verbs of being, becoming, and calling.
  • The instrumental case of nouns is made from the genitive singular without its ending.
  • Vowel changes present in the genitive singular, e.g., loss of penultimate "e" or changes from "ó" to "o" or "n" to "o," recur here.

Masculine Singular:

  • The instrumental singular ending is -em or -iem.
  • ‘Men’ nouns ending in -a take -n.

Examples:

    • syn: synem
    • brat: bratem
    • chłopiec: chłopcem
    • maj: majem
    • pies: psem
    • pokój: pokojem
    • las: lasem
    • ojciec: ojcem

After k, g:

    • Bóg: Bogiem
    • pociąg: pociągiem
    • Janek: Jankiem
    • Polak: Polakiem
    • Anglik: Anglikiem

After ´ accent:

    • koń: koniem
    • gołąb: gołębiem
    • uczeń: uczniem
    • gwóźdź: gwóździem
    • But: dzień: dniem, tydzień: tygodniem

Feminine Singular:

  • Nouns in -a or -ia: matka: matką, ciocia: ciocią, lekcja: lekcją, droga: drogą, Anna: Anną, Polska: Polską
  • Nouns in consonant without ´ accent add -n: sól: solą, twarz: twarzą, podróż: podróżą, kolej: koleją, rzecz: rzeczą, mysz: myszą, noc: nocą
  • Nouns in -i add -n: pani: panią, gospodyni: gospodynią
  • After ´ accent: nić: nićmi, czapka: czapką, gałąź: gałęzią, pień: pniem, jesień: jesienią, wieś: wsią

Neuter Singular:

  • Nouns in -o do not change.
  • After hard stem (except k, g) + -o or -e: pióro: piórem, krzesło: krzesłem, morze: morzem, zboże: zbożem, słońce: słońcem, miasto: miastem
  • Nouns in -ie, -ko, -go: życie: życiem, zdjęcie: zdjęciem, jabłko: jabłkiem, dziecko: dzieckiem
  • Nouns in -io extend -io to -ieniem: imię: imieniem, ramie: ramięciem
  • But: irybi: irybiem, prosiebi: prosiebiem, jagnię: jagnięciem
  • Nouns in -o alone extend -o to -ociem: zwierzę: zwierzęciem, dziewczę: dziewczęciem

Plural:

  • Most nouns: brat: braćmi, ksiądz: księżmi, człowiek: ludźmi, pieniądz: pieniędzmi, dziecko: dziećmi, przyjaciel: przyjaciółmi, syn: synami, ojciec: ojcami, pies: psami, stół: stołami, lekcja: lekcjami, kolega: kolegami, noc: nocami, córka: córkami, wiet: wietami, maj: majami, muzeum: muzeami
  • Nouns in -i, -ia, -io, -ie: pani: paniami, babcia: babciąmi, zdjęcie: zdjęciami
  • Most nouns in ´ accent: wieś: wsiami, pień: pniami, gałąź: gałęziami, uczeń: uczniami, gwóźdź: gwóźdźmi, tydzień: tygodniami
  • Some nouns (often monosyllabic) in ´ accent keep it: gołąb: gołębiami, koń: końmi, liść: liśćmi, nić: nićmi, dłon: dłonmi, koń: końmi
  • Nouns in -io extend -io to -ionami: imię: imionami, ramię: ramionami
  • But: irybie: irybitami, prosiebie: prosiebitami, jagnię: jagniętami
  • Nouns in -o alone extend -o to -otami: zwierzę: zwierzętami, dziewczę: dziewczętami

Instrumental Case of Adjectives:

  • An adjective associated with a noun in the instrumental case must also be in the instrumental case.
  • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e differ from those in -i, -a, -ie.
  • Masculine and neuter singular are identical.
  • The plural is identical for all genders.

Adjectives in -y, -a, -e:

    • dobry: dobrym
    • dobra: dobrą
    • dobre: dobrymi
    • dobrzy: dobrzy

Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie:

    • polski: polskim
    • polska: polską
    • polskie: polskimi
    • polscy: polscy

ostatni: ostatnim

    • ostatnia: ostatnią
    • ostatnie: ostatnimi
    • ostatni: ostatnimi

Instrumental Case of Kto/Co/Nikt/Nic:

  • Kto becomes kim; co becomes czym.
  • Nikt becomes nikim; nic becomes niczym.

Examples:

    • Kim jesteś?
    • Nie jestem nikim ważnym.
    • Czym malujesz?

Usage after 'To Be' and 'To Call':

  • After być and various verbs of 'calling' and 'esteeming,' a noun (with or without an adjective) stands in the instrumental case.
  • Usually, this noun is a job, rank, nationality, social/family status, or the name or judgment we give to someone.

Examples:

    • Michał jest młodym dentystą.
    • Dana jest miłą panią.
    • Jest Polakiem. Jest Polką.
    • Łukasza nazywamy dobrym ojcem.
    • Oni są policjantami.
    • Są Anglikami.
  • Do not use the instrumental case after To jest/To są or to state a proper name.

 

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

 

Jednostka 29

Other Uses of the Instrumental Case

Introduction: The instrumental case serves various purposes, including defining the means, time, and duration of an action, as well as following certain verbs and adjectives.

Usage with Transport, Route, or Tool

Tool:

  • Piszę długopisem albo ołówkiem.
    I write with a ballpoint or pencil.
  • On maluje farbami.
    He paints with paints.
  • Hanka myje ręce wodą.
    Hanka washes her hands with water.
  • Jacek bawi się zabawkami.
    Jack plays with his toys.
  • Przykrywam dziecko kocem.
    I cover the child with a blanket.

Route:

  • Idę polem i lasem.
    I go via field and forest.
  • Idę ulicą.
    I go along the road.
  • Łódź płynie Wisłą.
    The boat sails on the Wisła.
  • Idę korytarzem, potem schodami.
    I go along the corridor, then up the stairs.
  • Jan macha ręką.
    John is waving his hand.

Transport:

  • Jadę pociągiem albo samochodem, albo samolotem.
    I go by train or car or plane.
  • Idę piechotą.
    I go on foot.

Usage with Time and Duration

The instrumental case expresses extended time or duration of an action.

  • Wiosną zbieram kwiaty; jesienią owoce.
    In spring, I pick flowers; in autumn, fruit.
  • Latem Maciej jest kelnerem.
    In the summer, Maciej is a waiter.
  • Rankiem jest zimno.
    It is cold in the early morning.

Usage with Certain Verbs

The instrumental case is used with certain verbs, often replacing prepositions in English.

  • Późnym wieczorem czytam.
    I read late in the evening.
  • Zwierzęta polują nocą.
    Animals hunt at night.
  • Jan pracuje całymi dniami.
    John works for days on end.

Usage with Certain Adjectives

Adjectives derived from verbs requiring the instrumental case are followed by the instrumental case.

  • Wieża [f.] otoczona lasem.
    The tower surrounded by a forest.
  • Pole [n.] ogrodzone płotami.
    The field enclosed by fences.
  • Cukierki [m. pl.] nadziane miodem.
    Candies filled with honey.
  • Kołdra [f.] napchana piórami.
    The quilt stuffed with feathers.
  • Ciasto [n.] posypane cukrem.
    The cake sprinkled with sugar.
  • Droga [f.] pokryta śniegiem.
    The road covered with snow.
  • Okna [n. pl.] zasłonięte firankami.
    The windows covered with lace curtains.
  • Miasto [n.] zalane wodą.
    The city flooded with water.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 30

Prepositions Followed by the Instrumental Case

  1. Pod
    • Used to indicate below, under, near.
      • Example: Kot leży pod drzewem. (The cat lies under the tree.)
      • Example: Mieszkam pod Krakowem. (I live near Krakow.)
  1. Z
    • Used to indicate together with, with.
      • Example: Idę z matką, ojcem, kolegą. (I'm going with mother, father, a friend.)
    • Used with instrumental case even with motion.
  1. Nad
    • Used to indicate above, over, near.
      • Example: Miasto leży nad morzem. (The town lies on the sea.)
      • Example: Nad ranem/nad wieczorem. (Towards morning/evening.)
  1. Przed
    • Used to indicate in front of, earlier than.
      • Example: Przed domem jest ogród. (There is a garden in front of the house.)
      • Example: Przed kolacją jest zabawa. (There is a party before supper.)
  1. Za
    • Used to indicate behind, beyond.
      • Example: Za lasem są łąki z jabłoniami. (Beyond the forest are apple orchards.)

Additional Information

Pronunciation Aid

  • An 'e' is added to nad, pod, przed, and z before the personal pronoun 'mnn' and before difficult consonant groups.
    • Example: Niebo jest nade mną, ziemia pode mną. (The sky is above me, the earth below me.)
    • Example: Przede wszystkim pracuję. (Above all, I work.)

Usage with Certain Verbs

  • Verbs
    • bawić się z: play with
    • rozmawiać z: speak with/to
    • kłócić się z: quarrel with
    • sprzeczać się z: disagree with
    • zgadzać się z: agree with
    • bronić (się) przed: protect against
    • chronić (się) przed: guard against
    • toskać za: pine for, miss
    • pracować nad: work at
    • lubić mieszkać z: like to live with

Preposition plus Noun

  • Idę z bratem i z siostrą. (I'm going with my brother and my sister.)
  • Idę z nim i z nią. (I'm going with him and with her.)
  • Zeszyty leżą pod książkami. (The notebooks are under the books.)
  • Zeszyty leżą pod nimi. (The notebooks are under them.)
  • Wstydzę się przed ludźmi. (I'm ashamed in front of people.)
  • Wstydzę się przed nimi. (I'm ashamed in front of them.)
  • Kot leży pod drzewem. (The cat lies under the tree.)
  • Kot leży pod nim. (The cat lies under it.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

 

 

Jednostka 31

Verbs with Two Imperfective Forms

Most Polish verbs have two forms, imperfective and perfective, each expressing different aspects of an action (Unit 21). A few common verbs have two imperfective forms.

  1. Determinate Form:
    • Expresses action in progress (I’m going home right now) or imagined in progress in the near future (I’m going home at noon).
  1. Indeterminate Form:
    • Expresses frequent, habitual, or repetitive action (I go home at noon, I go to parties, I often go for walks).

Here are five verbs in this category. You may encounter their perfective forms by chance.

  • Walk, go
    • Determinate: chodzę, chodzisz, chodzi, chodzimy, chodzicie, chodzą
    • Indeterminate: idę, idziesz, idzie, idziemy, idziecie, idą
  • Travel
    • Determinate: jeżdżę, jeździsz, jeździ, jeździmy, jeździcie, jeżdżą
    • Indeterminate: jadę, jedziesz, jedzie, jedziemy, jedziecie, jadą
  • Fly, rush (coll.)
    • Determinate: lecę, lecisz, leci, lecimy, lecicie, lecą
    • Indeterminate: latam, latasz, lata, latamy, latacie, latają
  • Carry
    • Determinate: niosę, niesiesz, niesie, niemiemy, niesiecie, niosą
    • Indeterminate: noszę, nosisz, nosi, niemiemy, niesiecie, niosą
  • Transport
    • Determinate: wożę, woźisz, wozi, woziemy, woziicie, wożą
    • Indeterminate: wożę, woźisz, wozi, woziemy, woziicie, wożą

Pronunciation Note:

An 'e' is added to nad, pod, przed, and z before the personal pronoun 'mnn' and before difficult consonant groups.

Usage with Adverbs:

  • Determinate + Adverb of Current Time:
    • dzisiaj (today), już (already), teraz (now), zaraz (in a moment), na razie (right now), akurat (right now), znowu (once again).
  • Indeterminate + Adverb of Frequency:
    • często (often), nigdy (never), nie (not), codziennie (daily), single (all the time), zwykle (usually), zwyczajnie (usually), od tygodnia, miesiąca, roku [gen.] (for the last week, month, year), od dawna (for a long time now).

Examples:

  • Ola dzisiaj idzie z Piotrem. (Today, Ola is going with Peter.)
  • Ptaki teraz lecą do nas. (The birds are flying to us now.)
  • Adam jedzie do Warszawy. (Adam is traveling to Warsaw.)
  • Kasia niesie zakupy. (Kate is carrying the shopping.)
  • Gospodarz wiezie owoce. (The farmer is transporting fruit.)
  • Ola często chodzi do klubu. (Ola often goes to the club.)
  • Nad domem zawsze latają ptaki. (Birds always fly above the house.)
  • On codziennie jeździ do Krakowa. (He regularly travels to Krakow.)
  • Ona chętnie nosi zakupy. (She likes to carry the shopping.)
  • Zwykle wozi jabłka. (He usually transports apples.)

Common Derivatives:

There are many common derivatives, all imperfective, of "chodzić," e.g., wchodzić, podchodzić, nadchodzić.

Usage with Time Adverbs:

The time adverbs provided are used with either verb type, and the meaning often changes somewhat. Examples include "often," "never," "daily," "all the time," "usually," "always," "rarely," "recently," and "still."

Practice:

  1. Determinate:
    • Marek już idzie do domu. (Mark is going home already.)
    • Teraz idę do teatru. (Right now, I’m going to the theatre.)
  1. Indeterminate:
    • Marek już chodzi do szkoły. (Mark goes to school already.)
    • Teraz chodzę do teatru. (Right now, I go to the theatre.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

 

Jednostka 32

Locative Case (Nouns, Prepositions)

Consonant Changes:

  • The locative case is the most complex case.
  • When the ending -e is added, consonant changes occur in the singular of all genders.
  • After b, f, m, n, p, s, w, and z, the ending -e becomes -ie.
  • The plural ending -ach does not cause consonant changes.

Vowel Changes:

  • Vowel changes are also frequent in the locative case.
  • Nouns compensate by shortening their stem vowel or losing the penultimate e.
  • Change from a to e occurs in the singular only.

Masculine Singular:

  • Most masculine nouns take the ending -e or -ie in the locative case.
  • Other possible endings are -u after k, g, ch, j, l, and old monosyllabic nouns, -dziu after c, cz, sz, rz, w, dw, and -u before -mie, -nie, -cie, -le.
  • Some masculine nouns in -ba, -fa, -mo, -b, -f, -m take -ie in the locative case.

Feminine Singular:

  • Feminine nouns ending in certain consonants take the ending -e or -ie in the locative case.
  • Other feminine nouns are the same as the genitive singular.
  • Examples include siostra: siostrze and Polska: Polsce.

Neuter Singular:

  • Most neuter nouns take the ending -e or -ie in the locative case.
  • Nouns in -ę and -ię have different endings.
  • Examples include pole: polu and serce: sercu.

Plural - All Genders:

  • The plural ending -ach does not cause consonant changes.
  • Vowel changes that occurred in the singular recur in the plural.
  • Examples include pies: psach and jabłko: jabłkach.

Locative Case Prepositions:

  • The prepositions na, przy, w, po, and o are followed by the locative case.
  • Na is used for on, at, and in open areas.
  • Przy is used for near, close to, by, and while doing.
  • W is used for in enclosed areas and dressed in.
  • Po is used for along, up and down, after (time), in (language), and inherited from.
  • O is used for about, concerning, at (time), and with certain physical attributes.

Usage with Certain Verbs:

  • Some common verbs are followed by locative case prepositions.
  • Examples include mówić o, wiedzieć o, myśleć o, zapominać o, opowiadać o, grać na, rozmawiać o, and znać się na.

Verbs Siedzieć, Stać, Płynąć, Myśleć:

  • Verbs siedzieć, stać, płynąć, and myśleć often occur with the locative case.
  • Examples include siedzieć: siedzę, stać: stoimy, płynąć: płyniecie, and myśleć: myślę.

Locative Case of Kto/Co/Nikt/Nic:

  • Kto becomes kim, co becomes czym, nikt becomes nikim, and nic becomes niczym.
  • Examples include o kim myślisz?, w czym masz herbatę?, and nie gram na niczym.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

 

 

 

Jednostka 33

Locative Case of Adjectives

  • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e:

    • Adjectives in -y, -a, -e must be in the locative case when associated with a noun in the locative case.
    • Locative case endings for adjectives in -y, -a, -e are:
      • Singular: dobry -> dobrym (masculine), dobra -> dobrej (feminine), dobre -> dobrym (neuter)
      • Plural: dobrzy -> dobrych (all genders)
  • Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie:

    • Adjectives in -i, -a, -ie (and those few ending in -i, -ia, -ie) must be in the locative case when associated with a noun in the locative case.
    • Locative case endings for adjectives in -i, -a, -ie are:
      • Singular: polski -> polskim (masculine), polska -> polskiej (feminine), polskie -> polskim (neuter)
      • Plural: polscy -> polskich (all genders)

Locative Case Prepositional Pronouns

  • Personal Pronouns:

    • Personal pronouns change when used after locative case prepositions.
    • Locative case forms of personal pronouns are:
      • Singular: mnie, tobie, nim, niej, nim
      • Plural: nas, was, nich
  • Preposition plus Noun:

    • When a preposition is used with a noun in the locative case, the pronouns used after the preposition also change.

Examples:

  • Mówię o bracie i o siostrze. (I'm talking about the brother and the sister.)
  • Mówię o nim i o niej. (I'm talking about him and her.)
  • Zeszyty leżą na książkach. (The notebooks are lying on the books.)
  • Zeszyty leżą na nich. (The notebooks are lying on them.)
  • Kelner pracuje przy ludziach. (The waiter is working with the people.)
  • Kelner pracuje przy nich. (The waiter is working with them.)
  • Prezent jest w pudełku. (The present is in the box.)
  • Prezent jest w nim. (The present is in it.)

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

 

Jednostka 34

This, That, Such, What Like, Which

  • ten/ta/to - this

    • Nom. (tam)t-en
    • Acc. Non-alive – (tam)t-en
    • Gen. (tam)t-ego
    • Loc. (tam)t-ym
    • Dat. (tam)t-emu
    • Instr. (tam)t-ym
    • Singular Neut. (tam)t-o
    • Fem. (tam)t-a
    • Plural Non-men (tam)t-e
    • Men (tam)c-i
    • As nom. (tam)t-ych
    • As loc./dat. (tam)t-ej
  • jak-i - what like

    • Nom. jak-i
    • Acc. jak-i
    • Gen. jak-iego
    • Loc. jak-im
    • Dat. jak-iemu
    • Instr. jak-im
    • Singular Neut. jak-ie
    • Fem. jak-a
    • Plural jak-ie
    • Non-men jak-ich
    • Men jak-ich
  • któr-y - which

    • Nom. któr-y
    • Acc. któr-y
    • Gen. któr-ego
    • Loc. któr-ym
    • Dat. któr-emu
    • Instr. któr-ym
    • Singular Neut. któr-e
    • Fem. któr-a
    • Plural Non-men któr-e
    • Men któ-rz-y
    • As nom. któr-ych
    • As loc./dat. któr-ej
  • tak-i - such

    • Nom. tak-i
    • Acc. tak-i
    • Gen. tak-iego
    • Loc. tak-im
    • Dat. tak-iemu
    • Instr. tak-im
    • Singular Neut. tak-ie
    • Fem. tak-a
    • Plural Non-men tak-ie
    • Men ta-c-y
    • As gen. tak-ich
    • As loc./dat. tak-iej

Examples:

  • Jaki to jest szkoła? (What is this school like?)
  • Jaka książkę kupujesz? (What kind of book are you buying?)
  • Jacy to są chłopcy! (What (awful) boys!)
  • Jakie ładne miasto! (What a lovely town!)
  • Ten rower jest nowy, a tamten stary. (This bicycle is new, that one old.)
  • Idziesz z tym kolegą czy z tamtym? (Are you going with this friend or that one?)
  • List jest od tamtej pani. (The letter is from that lady.)
  • Nie ma takiego numeru. (There is no such number.)
  • Nie rozmawiam z takimi ludźmi. (I don’t talk to such people.)
  • Która to jest szkoła? (Which school is this?)
  • Którą książkę kupujesz? (Which book are you buying?)
  • Którzy to są chłopcy? (Which boys are these?)
  • Który pan jest dobrym kierowcą? (Which gentleman is a good driver?)
  • Z którą panią pracujesz? (Which lady do you work with?)
  • Wiem, która jest godzina. (I know what time it is.)
  • Są tacy, którzy nie lubią ciasta. (There are (such) people who don’t like cake.)
  • To państwo jest bogate. (This country is rich.)
  • Ci państwo są bogaci. (These people are rich.)

Note: Który used to introduce a relative clause is preceded by a comma.

Works Cited

Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

Jednostka 35

My, Your, etc., Own

  • Possessive adjectives
    • Singular

      • Masc. Nom. mój
      • Fem. Nom. moja
      • Neut. Nom. moje
      • Plural Non-men Nom. nasz-e
      • Men Nom. mo-i
    • Plural Non-men

      • As nom. moj-e
      • Men Nom. mo-i
    • Gen. (Non-alive) moj-ego, nasz-ego

      • Gen. (Alive) as gen. moj-ego, nasz-ego
      • As loc./dat. moj-ej, nasz-ej
      • As gen. czy-im
    • Dat. moj-emu, nasz-emu

    • Instr. mo-im, nasz-ym

      • Dat. moj-emu, nasz-emu
      • Instr. mo-im, nasz-ym
      • As gen. czy-im
    • Acc. Non-alive – (Non-men) mój

    • Acc. (Alive) – (Men) mo-i

      • Acc. (Men) – (Non-men) moj-e
    • Loc. mo-im, nasz-ym, czy-im

      • Loc. mo-im, nasz-ym, czy-im
      • As loc./dat. czy-ich
    • Singular Neut. moj-e

      • Singular Fem. moj-a
      • Plural Non-men moj-e
      • Men mo-i
      • As gen. czy-ich
      • As loc./dat. czy-ej
    • Plural Non-men (Non-men) moj-e

      • Plural Non-men (Men) mo-i
      • Plural Non-men (As nom.) moj-e
      • Plural Non-men (As loc./dat.) czy-ej
    • Men mo-i

      • As gen. czy-ich
    • Plural Non-men moj-e

      • Men mo-i
    • As gen. czy-ich

Examples:

  • Syn jest młody. (My/your/his etc. son is young.)
  • Jego syn jest młody. (His son is young.)

Note:

  • twój, swój behave as mój.
  • Wasz behaves as nasz.
  • The 'j' in mój and czyj is lost if followed by an 'i'.

To say 'your' to someone formally, use the genitive form of:

  • pan: pana
  • pani: pani
  • panowie: panów
  • panie: pań
  • państwo: państwa

Examples:

  • Gdzie jest pana/pani syn? (Where is your [sing.] son?)
  • Czy jedziemy pana/pani samochodem? (Are we going in your [sing.] car?)
  • To jest panów/pań/państwa autobus. (This is your [pl.] bus.)

Swój (my, your, his, etc.) This is a Polish oddity.

  1. It implies ‘(of) my, your etc. own’ and can also refer to persons addressed as ‘pan’ etc.
  2. It is often used where English uses voice stress to make a contrast, e.g., Lubię pracę: I like my (the) job. but Lubię swoją pracę: I like my job.
  3. It replaces my/mine etc. if the thing possessed belongs to the subject of the sentence.
  4. It often prevents confusion with jego, jej, ich which refer to someone else.

Possessive adjective

  • Moja praca jest nudna. (My job is boring.)
  • Nie mamy jego/jej/ich dokumentów. (We don’t have his/her/their documents.)
  • Mój samochód jest stary. (My car is old.)
  • Jedziemy jego/jej/ich samochodem. (We’re going in his/her/their car.)
  • To są nasze miejsca, a to wasze. (These are our places, and these yours.)
  • Gdzie mieszkają twoi koledzy? (Where do your friends live?)
  • On nigdy nie odwiedza jego brata. (He never visits his (someone’s) brother.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

    Jednostka 36

    Each, Every, All

    • Adjectives
      • Singular
        • Masc. Nom. każdy
        • Fem. Nom. każda
        • Neut. Nom. każde
        • Plural Non-men Nom. każde
        • Men Nom. każdy
      • Gen. (Non-alive) każdego, wszystkiego
        • Gen. (Alive) as gen. każdego, wszystkiego
        • As loc./dat. każdej, wszystkich
        • As gen. wszystkich
      • Dat. każdemu, wszystkiemu
      • Instr. każdym, wszystkim
        • Dat. każdemu, wszystkiemu
        • Instr. każdym, wszystkim
        • As gen. wszystkich
      • Acc. Non-alive – (Non-men) każde
      • Acc. (Alive) – (Men) każdy
        • Acc. (Men) – (Non-men) każde
      • Loc. każdym, wszystkim
        • Loc. każdym, wszystkim
        • As loc./dat. każdej, wszystkich
      • Singular Neut. każde
        • Singular Fem. każda
        • Plural Non-men każde
        • Men każdy
        • As gen. wszystkich
        • As loc./dat. wszystkiej
      • Plural Non-men (Non-men) każde
        • Plural Non-men (Men) każdy
        • Plural Non-men (As nom.) każde
        • Plural Non-men (As loc./dat.) wszystkich
      • Men każdy
        • As gen. wszystkich
      • Plural Non-men każde
        • Men każdy
      • As gen. wszystkich

    Examples:

    • Każdy kupuje chleb. (Everyone buys bread.)
    • Rozmawiam z każdym. (I talk to everyone.)
    • Wszystko jest tanie. (Everything is cheap.)
    • Pamiętam o wszystkim. (I remember everything.)

    Note:

    • Wszystko (everything) also has case forms which you may meet.

    Note these ways of saying 'all of us,' 'all of you,' 'all of them':

    • Masc. każdy z + nas, was, nich
    • Fem. każda z + nas, was, nich

    Examples:

    • Każdy z nas jest zmęczony. (All of us are tired.)
    • Każda z nich jest zmęczona. (All of them are tired.)
    • Każdy z was czeka. (All of you are waiting.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

     

    Jednostka 37

    Clock Time

    In Polish, when expressing clock time, it's common to say "What hour is it?" or "At what hour?" Here are some key points:

    • The word "hour" (godzina) is often omitted, but if included, you need the feminine form of ordinal numbers.
    • In the 24-hour clock, use dwudziesta pierwsza/druga/trzecia for 21st/22nd/23rd.
    • Cardinal numbers like dwadzieścia (20), trzydzieści (30), czterdzieści (40), pięćdziesiąt (50) are used in combination with hours and minutes.
    • Minutes (minuta) to the hour use za + nominative case of the hour, and for minutes past the hour use po + locative case of the hour. Half-hours use do + genitive case of the next hour.
    • You can also use cardinal numbers to simplify expressions.

    Examples:

    • Która jest godzina? (What’s the time?)
    • Jest druga (godzina). (It’s two o’clock.)
    • Jest pięć minut po ósmej. (It’s five minutes past eight.)
    • Jest dwadzieścia druga. (It’s twenty-two o’clock.)

    To specify minutes:

    • za + nominative case of the hour (for minutes to the hour)
    • po + locative case of the hour (for minutes past the hour)
    • do + genitive case of the next hour (for half-hours)

    For example:

    • Jest za kwadrans czwarta. (It’s a quarter to four.)
    • Jest kwadrans po czwartej. (It’s a quarter past four.)

    Expressions with prepositions:

    • o + locative case (at a specific time)
    • po + locative case (past a specific time)
    • za + nominative case (in a specific time)

    Examples:

    • O pierwszej. (At one o’clock.)
    • Po drugiej. (Past two o’clock.)
    • Za godzinę. (In an hour.)

    Expressions with the genitive:

    • od = from; do = until; około = around

    Examples:

    • Od południa do północy. (From noon till midnight.)
    • Pracuję do dwunastej. (I work until twelve.)

    Expressions with the locative:

    • o = at; po = past

    Examples:

    • Najwcześniej o ósmej rano. (8:00 a.m. at the earliest.)
    • Idę spać po jedenastej. (I go to bed after eleven.)

    Expressions with the instrumental:

    • przed = before; między... a... = between... and...

    Examples:

    • Wracam z pracy przed siódmą. (I return from work before 7:00.)
    • Między drugą a trzecią. (Between two and three.)
    • Wracam z pracy przed siódmą. (I return from work before 7:00.)
    • Pracujemy przed południem. (We work before noon.)
    • Jestem w domu między drugą a trzecią. (I'm at home between two and three.)
    • Między wpół do pierwszej a szóstą. (Between half-past twelve and six.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

    Jednostka 38

    Być (Past, Future); Days

    Past Tense (I Was): In the past tense, the endings are added to the verb stem "by." The endings vary for the three genders in the singular, and for masculine 'men' nouns and all other nouns in the plural.

    Singular:

    • Masculine:
      • ja byłem
      • ty byłeś*
      • on był
    • Feminine:
      • ja byłam
      • ty byłaś
      • ona była
    • Neuter:
      • ono było
    • Men (Mixed):
      • my byliśmy
      • wy byliście
      • oni byli
    • Other Nouns (Mixed):
      • my byłyśmy
      • wy byłyście
      • one były

    The plural for men contains -li, not -ły. Stress is always on the "by" syllable.

    Future Tense (I Will Be): In the future tense, the verb "będzie" is used.

    Singular:

    • ja będę
    • ty będziesz
    • on/ona/ono będzie

    Plural:

    • my będziemy
    • wy będziecie
    • oni/one będą

    Negation: There is no/will be no:

    • Past of nie ma: nie było
    • Future: nie będzie

    Remember that the direct object, shown in capitals, stands in the genitive case after a negative verb.

    Examples:

    • Są jabłka. (There are apples.)
    • Nie ma JABŁEK. (There are no apples.)
    • Nie było wczoraj JABŁEK. (There were no apples yesterday.)
    • Nie będzie jutro JABŁEK. (There will be no apples tomorrow.)

    Examples in Past Tense:

    • Wczoraj byłem nad morzem. (Yesterday, I was by the sea.)
    • Nie było u nas. (It wasn't at our place.)
    • Czy dziecko było chore? (Was the child sick?)
    • Byliśmy w kościele. (We were in the church.)
    • Gdzie byliście rano? (Where were you in the morning?)

    Days of the Week:

    • Nominative:
      • Mon.: poniedziałek
      • Tues.: wtorek
      • Wed.: środa
      • Thur.: czwartek
      • Fri.: piątek
      • Sat.: sobota
      • Sun.: niedziela

    Accusative: (w - on)

    • w poniedziałek
    • we wtorek
    • w środę
    • w czwartek
    • w piątek
    • w sobotę
    • w niedzielę

    Genitive: (od - from; do - to)

    • poniedziałku
    • wtorku
    • środy
    • czwartku
    • piątku
    • soboty
    • niedzieli

    Locative: (po - after; o - concerning)

    • po poniedziałku
    • we wtorek
    • o środzie
    • w czwartek
    • w piątek
    • w sobocie
    • w niedzieli

    Instrumental: (przed - before)

    • przed poniedziałkiem
    • wtorkiem
    • środkiem
    • czwartkiem
    • piątkiem
    • sobotą
    • niedzielą

    Examples:

    • Pokój na noc z piątku na sobotę. (A room for the night from Friday to Saturday.)
    • Umawiamy się na niedzielę. (We make a date for Sunday.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

    Jednostka 39

    Months; Seasons; Time Expressions

    Months and Seasons:

    • Nominative:
      • Jan.: styczeń
      • Feb.: luty
      • Mar.: marzec
      • Apr.: kwiecień
      • May: maj
      • June: czerwiec
      • July: lipiec
      • Aug.: sierpień
      • Sept.: wrzesień
      • Oct.: październik
      • Nov.: listopad
      • Dec.: grudzień
    • Locative: (w - in; po - after)
      • styczniu, lutym
      • marcu, kwietniu
      • maju, czerwcu
      • lipcu, sierpniu
      • we wrześniu, październiku
      • listopadzie, grudniu
    • Genitive: (od - from; do - to)
      • stycznia, lutego
      • marca, kwietnia
      • maja, czerwca
      • lipca, sierpnia
      • września, października
      • listopada, grudnia
    • Instrumental: (przed - before)
      • styczniem, lutym
      • marcem, kwietniem
      • majem, czerwcem
      • lipcem, sierpniem
      • wrześniem, październikiem
      • listopadem, grudniem

    Days:

    • Nominative/Accusative: (singular and plural)
      • day: dzień
      • week: tydzień
      • month: miesiąc
      • year: rok

    Time Expressions:

    • Every:
      • co + nominative:
        • co minutę: every minute
        • co dwie minuty: every two minutes
        • co godzinę: every hour
        • co pół godziny: every half an hour
        • co rano: every morning
        • co wieczór: every evening
        • co niedzielę: every Sunday
        • co kwartał: every quarter
    • Once every:
      • raz na + accusative:
        • raz na godzinę: once every hour
        • raz na tydzień: once every week
    • Genitive Case Alone:
      • jednego/pewnego dnia: one day
      • jednej/pewnej nocy: one night
      • każdego dnia: every day
      • każdego wieczoru: each evening
    • Ago:
      • temu + instrumental:
        • minutę temu: a minute ago
        • trzy dni temu: three days ago
        • pół roku temu: half a year ago
        • szesnaście lat temu: sixteen years ago
        • dawno temu: a long time ago
        • jak dawno temu?: how long ago?
    • From/To:
      • od + genitive: from
      • do + genitive: to
        • od piątku do soboty: from Friday to Saturday
        • od tygodnia: for a week
        • od trzech miesięcy: for three months
        • od pół roku: for half a year
        • od dawna: for a long time
    • Last/Next:
      • zeszły: last
      • przyszły: next
        • w zeszły piątek: last Friday
        • w zeszłą sobotę: last Saturday
        • w zeszłą noc: last night
        • w zeszłym tygodniu: last week
        • w zeszłym miesiącu: last month
        • dzisiaj: today
        • wczoraj: yesterday
        • od wczoraj do jutra: from yesterday to tomorrow

    Cały:

    • Whole (All):
      • cały + accusative:
        • cały rok: the whole year
        • całą sobotę: the whole Saturday
        • całą noc: the whole night
      • Już + cały + present tense:
        • już cały dzień pada deszcz: it has been raining all day
        • czekam już całą godzinę: I've been waiting for a whole hour

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.

    Jednostka 40

    Dual-case prepositions:

    Some prepositions are always followed by a particular case, such as "bez matki" (gen.) and "przez okno" (acc.), while others often have several meanings that require different cases. For example:

    • Czekam na matkę (acc.). - I'm waiting for my mother.
    • Siedzę na krześle (loc.). - I'm sitting on the chair.
    • Patrzę na zegarek (acc.). - I'm looking at my watch.

    Verbs of motion:

    In Polish, the accusative case expresses motion. When a verb implies motion to/from, the preposition after that verb is often followed not by the locative or instrumental case but by the accusative. For instance:

    • Idę na pocztę. - I'm going to the post office.
    • Stawiam wazon na stół. - I place the vase on the table.
    • Kładę sweter na półkę. - I lay the sweater on the shelf.
    • Jadę na urlop. - I'm going on holiday.
    • Idę po obiad. - I'm going to fetch the lunch.
    • Proszę o gazetę. - I ask for a newspaper.
    • Pies ucieka w las. - The dog runs off into the forest.
    • Jedziemy w góry. - We are driving into the hills.

    Instrumental to accusative change:

    The change from instrumental to accusative most often occurs with prepositions like "między," "nad," "pod," "przed," "za." For example:

    • Jesteśmy nad morzem. - We are at the seaside.
    • Pies leży pod łóżkiem. - The dog is lying under the bed.
    • Kot siedzi przed płotem. - The cat is sitting in front of the fence.
    • Tomek mieszka za granicą. - Tom lives abroad.
    • Dziecko jest za drzwiami. - The child is behind the door.
    • Jedziemy nad morze. - We're going to the seaside.
    • Pies kładzie się pod łóżko. - The dog lies down under the bed.
    • Kot wychodzi przed płot. - The cat comes out in front of the fence.
    • Tomek jedzie za granicę. - Tom is going abroad.
    • Dziecko chowa się za drzwiami. - The child hides behind the door.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Basic Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. 2014.


    Jednostki 2


    Jednostka 1

    Unit 1: Verb Aspects in Polish

    Polish Verb Tenses

    Polish features fewer tenses compared to English, lacking continuous tenses to convey duration or ongoing actions. Additionally, there are no past tenses using 'have' or 'had.' To address this, most Polish verbs are paired as imperfective and perfective, each expressing a distinct aspect of an action.

    Imperfective Verbs

    Imperfective verbs depict actions in progress, those that are long-lasting, habitual, or repeated. They do not have a present tense.

    Examples:

    • Buduję dom. (I'm building a house)
    • Owoce drogo kosztują. (Fruit costs a lot)
    • Wstaję wcześnie. (I get up early)

    Perfective Verbs

    Perfective verbs, on the other hand, express actions that occurred once in the past, will occur once in the future, or are completed.

    Examples:

    • Kupiłem dom. (I bought a house)
    • Pomogłem ci. (I helped you)
    • Zrobiłem zadanie. (I completed the task)

    Imperfective and Perfective Verb Pairs

    Most verbs ending in -ap and belonging to the -am, -a, -ajo group are imperfective. Meanwhile, verbs ending in -awap, -owap, -iwap, and -ywap are also imperfective.

    Examples: czytać (to read), mieszkać (to live), sprzedawać (to sell), pracować (to work), obsługiwać (to serve), pokazywać (to show)

    Verbs with Two Imperfective Forms

    Certain verbs, primarily related to motion, have two distinct imperfective forms: determinate and indeterminate.

    Creating Perfective Verb Forms

    Perfective verbs are typically derived from imperfective verbs by altering the stem suffix and sometimes the stem itself or by adding a prefix.

    Examples:

    • kupować -> kupić (to buy)
    • pomagać -> pomóc (to help)
    • robić -> zrobić (to do)
    • pisać -> napisać (to write)
    • pakować -> spakować (to pack)

    Imperfective/Perfective Verb Pairs

    Some imperfective/perfective pairs exhibit no visual similarity. Certain verbs lack corresponding perfective forms as their actions can only be ongoing.

    Tenses in Imperfective and Perfective Verbs

    Imperfective verbs offer a range of tenses to express current, habitual, or incomplete actions. In contrast, perfective verbs encompass a variety of tenses to denote actions that are or will be complete.

    Adverbs to Clarify Meaning in Imperfective Verbs

    Given that imperfective verbs can signify current, habitual, or incomplete actions, adverbs are frequently employed to clarify their meaning.

    Examples:

    • często (often)
    • ciągle (still)
    • dzisiaj (today)
    • zawsze (always)
    • czasem (sometimes)
    • już (already)
    • rzadko (rarely)
    • teraz (now)
    • na razie (right now)
    • zwyczajnie (usually)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

     

    Jednostka 2

    Unit 2:-ać and -ić verbs: present tense consonant changes

    In Polish, verbs ending in -ać and -ić follow specific patterns when conjugated in the present tense. Most of these verbs maintain their stem and add the required endings for different persons. Verbs in -ać belong to the -am, -a, -ają group, while verbs in -ić belong to either the -ię, -i, -ią group or the -ę, -i, -ą group. For example:

    Verbs in -ać:

    • mieszkać (to live) -> mieszkam, mieszkasz, mieszka, mieszkamy, mieszkacie, mieszkają
    • robić (to make) -> robię, robisz, robi, robimy, robicie, robią
    • płacić (to pay) -> płacę, płacisz, płaci, płacimy, płacicie, płacą

    Verbs in -ić (Group 1):

    • brać (to take) -> biorę, bierzesz, bierze, bierzemy, bierzecie, biorą
    • pisać (to write) -> piszę, piszesz, pisze, piszemy, piszecie, piszą
    • płakać (to cry) -> płaczę, płaczesz, płacze, płaczemy, płaczecie, płaczą

    In Group 1 of -ać verbs, the final stem consonant changes in all parts, except for some exceptions like brać and prać, which have vowel changes.

    Verbs in -ić (Group 2):

    • łamać (to break) -> łamię, łamiesz, łamie, łamiemy, łamiecie, łamią
    • kłamać (to tell a lie), łapać (to catch), drapać (to scratch), chrupać (to crunch), sypać (to pour), kąpać (to bathe)

    In Group 2 of -ać verbs, the final stem consonant is usually m or p, which remains unchanged, and an extra 'i' is added to the ending to soften the consonant.

    Verbs in -ić:

    • prosić (to ask) -> proszę, prosisz, prosi, prosimy, prosicie, proszą
    • czyścić (to clean) -> czyścę, czyścisz, czyści, czyścimy, czyścicie, czyścą
    • wozić (to transport) -> wożę, wozisz, wozi, wozimy, wozicie, wożą

    In -ić verbs, the stem consonant changes in the first and third person forms due to the ending not starting with 'i'.

    Some verbs have specific stem consonant changes:

    • r – rz: brać (to take) -> biorę, bierzesz, bierze, bierzemy, bierzecie, biorą
    • s – sz: pisać (to write) -> piszę, piszesz, pisze, piszemy, piszecie, piszą
    • k – cz: płakać (to cry) -> płaczę, płaczesz, płacze, płaczemy, płaczecie, płaczą
    • z – ż: wiązać (to tie) -> wiążę, wiążesz, wiąże, wiążemy, wiążecie, wiążą
    • t – cz: dygotać (to shiver) -> dygoczę, dygoczesz, dygocze, dygoczemy, dygoczecie, dygoczą

    Some verbs, like brać and prać, keep their 'r' in the first and third person forms but have a vowel change.

    These conjugation patterns provide a comprehensive guide for learners of Polish, aiding in understanding how verbs ending in -ać and -ić are inflected in the present tense.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

     

    Jednostka 3

    Unit 4: Comparisons: adjectives in -er and -est

    Comparisons: Adjectives in -er and -est

    Formation of Comparative Adjectives: Adjectives ending in -y, -a, -e simply insert -sz before the ending to form the comparative form. Examples: nowy (new) becomes nowszy (newer), gruby (fat) becomes grubszy (fatter), stary (old) becomes starszy (older), młody (young) becomes młodszy (younger).

    Adjectives ending in -ki/-gi, -oki/-ogi, and -eki drop these endings and add -szy/-sza/-sze to form the comparative form. Examples: krótki (short) becomes krótszy (shorter), szeroki (wide) becomes szerszy (wider), daleki (far) becomes dalszy (further).

    Softening of Consonants in Comparative Adjectives: Some adjectives soften a hard stem consonant before adding -sz, and the preceding vowel may change. Examples: g becomes u, dzugi becomes dłuższy (longer), drogi becomes droższy (dearer), tani becomes tańszy (cheaper).

    Formation of Comparative Adjectives with -ejsz: Adjectives with several consonants before the ending add -ejsz to form the comparative form. The consonant before -ejsz is also softened. Examples: ładny (nice) becomes ładniejszy (nicer), wolny (free) becomes wolniejszy (slower), biedny (poor) becomes biedniejszy (poorer).

    Irregular Comparative Forms: Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms. Examples: dobry (good) becomes lepszy (better), zły (bad) becomes gorszy (worse), wielki (big) becomes większy (bigger).

    Formation of Superlative Adjectives: Most adjectives simply add naj in front of the comparative form to form the superlative form. Examples: dobry (good) becomes najlepszy (the best), duży (big) becomes największy (the biggest).

    Other Ways of Expressing Superlatives: Superlative adjective + z(e) + genitive plural of noun/pronoun. Examples: najpiękniejszy z starych polskich miast (the nicest of all the old Polish towns), najmłodsze dziecko (the youngest child).

    Comparatives with 'than': Comparative adjective + niż (than) + nominative case of noun/pronoun or + od (from) + genitive. Examples: On jest wyższy niż Tomek (He is taller than Tom), Ona jest młodsza ode mnie (She is younger than I).

    Other Ways of Expressing Comparatives and Superlatives: coraz + comparative adjective = more and more o wiele + comparative adjective = much...-er, far...-er im...tym...+ comparative of both adjectives = the...the... mniej + comparative adjective = less...-er najmniej + comparative adjective = the least...-est Examples: Magda jest coraz piękniejsza (Magda is more and more beautiful), Rowery są o wiele tańsze (Bikes are much cheaper), Im szybszy pociąg, tym droższy bilet (The faster the train, the more expensive the ticket), Mniej zanieczyszczeń jest lepsze dla środowiska (A less polluted world is better for the environment), Najmniej skomplikowany scenariusz jest najlepszy (The least complicated scenario is the best).

    Revision - Past Tense of 'być' (to be): The past tense of 'być' (to be) is formed by adding the appropriate endings to the verb stem. Examples: ja byłem (I was), ona była (she was), my byliśmy (we were), wy byliście (you were), oni byli (they were).

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 4

    Unit 4: Present Tense of -nąć Verbs

    There are numerous verbs ending in -nop. If they are imperfective, they exhibit a present tense, while perfective ones correspond to a future tense in meaning. These verbs share the same endings as those in Unit 2, with an additional "i" before the ending, except in the first-person singular (I) and third-person plural (they) forms.

    Verbs:

    1. biegnąć (run)

      • ja biegnę
      • ty biegniesz
      • on/ona/ono biegnie
      • my biegniemy
      • wy biegniecie
      • oni/one biegną
    2. ciągnąć (pull)

      • ja ciągnę
      • ty ciągniesz
      • on/ona/ono ciągnie
      • my ciągniemy
      • wy ciągniecie
      • oni/one ciągną
    3. płynąć (sail)

      • ja płynę
      • ty płyniesz
      • on/ona/ono płynie
      • my płyniemy
      • wy płyniecie
      • oni/one płyną

    Note: An alternative infinitive "biec" exists.

    Likewise for the following verbs:

    • marznąć (get cold)
    • moknąć (get wet)
    • kwitnąć (bloom)
    • rosnąć (grow)

    Special Case: In these verbs, "s" is softened to "ś" when followed by "ni."

    Derived Nouns:

    • kwiat (flower)
    • mróz (frost)
    • mokry (wet)
    • płyn (liquid)
    • pociąg (train)
    • roślina (plant)
    • bieg (gear, running pace)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 5

    Unit 5: Short-stem non-wać verbs: Adding 'j' in the present tense

    Introduction

    Polish verbs ending in -wać routinely add a "j" in the present tense to avoid awkward consonant clusters. Similarly,some short-stem verbs ending in -ać, -eć, -ić, -uć, or -yć also get a "j" boost for the same reason.

    -ać Verbs

    For these verbs, the infinitive's "a" transforms into "e" in the present tense.

    Examples:

      • lać (to pour)leję (I pour)
      • kuleć (to limp)kuleję (I limp)
      • pić (to drink)piję (I drink)
      • żyć (to live)żyję (I live)
      • czuć (to feel)czuję (I feel)

    More -ać Verb Examples:

      • śmiać się (to laugh)
      • wiać (to blow) (used only in 3rd person singular)
      • lać also means "to pour down" (rain)

    -eć Verbs

    These verbs keep their "e" but swap it for another "e" in the present tense.

    Example:

      • bić (to hit)bije (he/she/it hits)

    -uć Verbs

    The infinitive's "u" changes to "i" when these verbs go present.

    Examples:

      • myć (to wash)myję (I wash)
      • myć się (to wash oneself)myję się (I wash myself)
      • kryć (to hide)kryję (I hide)
      • kryć się (to hide oneself)kryję się (I hide myself)
      • szyć (to sew)szyję (I sew)

    -yć Verbs

    Similar to -uć verbs, "y" becomes "i" in the present tense.

    Example:

      • pluć (to spit)pluję (I spit)

    Irregular Verbs: Where "ji" Melts into "i"

    A few special verbs have their "ji" blend into just "i" for all forms except "I" and "they."

    Examples:

      • stać (to stand)stoję (I stand)
      • kroić (to cut)kroję (I cut)
      • kleić (to glue)kleję (I glue)

    In Summary:

    Polish verbs with short stems, including those ending in -wać, -ać, -eć, -uć, and -yć, get a "j" boost in the present tense.For -ać verbs, "a" becomes "e." In -eć verbs, "e" stays but doubles. "u" transforms into "i" for -uć verbs, and "yć" verbs follow suit. A handful of irregular verbs lose their "j" except in specific forms.

    Bonus Examples:

      • brać (to take)biorę (I take)
      • dać (to give)daje (I give)
      • robić (to do)robię (I do)
      • mieć (to have)mam (I have)
      • wiedzieć (to know)wiem (I know)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 6

    English and Polish Adverbs

    Adverbs tell us how, when, or where an action occurs. In English, adverbs of the "how" kind often end in -ly. Polish adverbs, for the most part, are built from corresponding adjectives.

    Making Adverbs from Adjectives

    The usual way to create an adverb from an adjective is to replace the ending:

      • -y/-i becomes -o/-ie: łatwy (easy) → łatwo (easily), miły (nice) → mile (nicely)
      • -ny becomes -no: równy (equal) → równo (equally), wolny (slow) → wolno (slowly)
      • -ny becomes -nnie: mocny (strong) → mocno (strongly)
      • -ty becomes -sto: częsty (frequent) → często (frequently)

    Irregular Adverbs

    Some adjectives have irregular adverbs, like:

      • dobry (good) → dobrze (well)
      • zły (bad) → źle (badly)
      • mały (small) → mało (little)
      • wielki (big) → wiele (much)

    dużo, wiele, and mało

    These adverbs express quantity:

      • dużo is used with uncountable nouns (dużo wody, much water)
      • wiele is used with plural nouns (wiele ludzi, many people)
      • mało can be used with any noun (mało czasu, little time)

    Comparative and Superlative Forms

    Comparatives:

      • Add -j to adverbs ending in -e/-ie: szybko (quickly) → szybciej (faster)
      • Replace -o with -iej for adverbs in -o/-io: głośno (loudly) → głośniej (louder)
      • Drop the ending and soften consonants for adverbs in -ko/-eko/-oko: nisko (low) → niżej (lower)

    Superlatives:

    Add naj- before the comparative: szybko → najszybciej (fastest)

    Comparatives with 'than'

    Use the comparative adverb + niż (than) + nominative case: On biega szybciej niż ja (He runs faster than me). Alternatively, use niż + genitive with od: On jest mądrzejszy ode mnie (He is wiser than me).

    Other Ways to Express Comparatives:

      • coraz + comparative adverb: coraz szybciej (getting faster and faster)
      • o wiele + comparative adverb: o wiele łatwiej (much easier)
      • im... tym... + comparative adverbs: Im szybciej biegniesz, tym bardziej zmęczony jesteś (The faster you run, the more tired you are)

    Superlatives:

    Most adverbs take naj- in front of the comparative: długo (long) → najdłużej (longest). Alternatively, use the superlative adverb + z(e) + genitive plural: On biegał najdłużej ze wszystkich (He ran the longest of all).

    Long or Difficult Comparatives and Superlatives:

    Use bardziej (more) and najbardziej (most): interesująco (interestingly) → bardziej interesująco, najbardziej interesująco.

    'Less' and 'Least'

    Use mniej (less) and najmniej (least): Ona mówi mniej niż on (She speaks less than he does).

    Remember:

      • Adverbs typically go after the verb they modify.
      • Adverbs can also act as adjectives.
      • Adverbs express a variety of meanings beyond manner, like place, time, and degree.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 7

    Past Tense of Most Imperfective Verbs in Polish

    Formation:

      1. Remove the -ć from the infinitive.
      1. Add the appropriate endings:
      • Singular:
          • -łem for first-person singular masculine
          • -łam for first-person singular feminine
          • -łeś for second-person singular masculine
          • -łaś for second-person singular feminine
          • -ło for third-person singular (both masculine and feminine)
      • Plural:
          • -liśmy for first-person plural masculine
          • -łyśmy for first-person plural feminine
          • -liście for second-person plural
          • -łyście for second-person plural feminine
          • -li for third-person plural masculine
          • -ły for third-person plural feminine

    Stress:

      • Second-last syllable in singular forms.
      • Third-last syllable in plural forms.

    Examples:

      • kochać (to love): ja kochałem, ty kochałeś/kochałaś, on/ona kochał/kochała, my kochaliśmy/kochałyśmy,wy kochaliście/kochałyście, oni/one kochali/kochały
      • robić (to do): ja robiłem, ty robiłeś/robiłaś, on/ona robił/robiła, my robiliśmy/robiłyśmy, wy robiliście/robiłyście, oni/one robili/robiły
      • kończyć (to finish): ja kończyłem, ty kończyłeś/kończyłaś, on/ona kończył/kończyła, my kończyliśmy/kończyłyśmy, wy kończyliście/kończyłyście, oni/one kończyli/kończyły
      • czuć (to feel): ja czułem, ty czułeś/czułaś, on/ona czuł/czuła, my czuliśmy/czułyśmy, wy czuliście/czułyście,oni/one czuli/czuły
      • pracować (to work): ja pracowałem, ty pracowałeś/pracowałaś, on/ona pracował/pracowała, my pracowaliśmy/pracowałyśmy, wy pracowaliście/pracowałyście, oni/one pracowali/pracowały

    Movable Person Suffixes:

    The person suffixes (-m, -ś, -śmy, -ście) can be moved to the beginning of the sentence for emphasis or flow. The -e- in the verb ending is often dropped if the first word ends in a vowel (except ą and ę).

      • Examples:
          • Mieszkaliśmy blisko. / Myśmy blisko mieszkali. (We lived nearby.)
          • Długo czekałeś? / Długoś czekał? (Were you waiting long?)
          • Kogo odwiedzaliście? / Kogoście odwiedzali? (Who were you visiting?)

    Ongoing Action:

    Both the present and past tenses of imperfective verbs can express ongoing action, but with slight differences:

      • Present tense: Ongoing action happening now or regularly.
      • Past tense: Ongoing action that happened in the past.

    Negative Sentences:

    The past tense can be used in negative sentences to express "stopped doing something."

    • Examples:
        • Od wielu lat nie pracuję. (I haven't worked for many years.)
        • Czekam od godziny. (I've been waiting for an hour.)
      • Był tam od miesiąca. (He had been there for a month.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 8

    Imperfective Verbs in -eć: Past Tense Conjugation

    Formation:

      • Change the e of the infinitive to a before ł.
      • Keep the e unchanged before l.
      • Add the appropriate endings:
      • Singular:
          • "-łem" for first-person masculine ("ja")
          • "-łam" for first-person feminine ("ty")
          • "-łeś" for second-person masculine ("on")
          • "-łaś" for second-person feminine ("ona")
          • "-ło" for third-person singular (both masculine and feminine)
      • Plural:
          • "-liśmy" for first-person plural masculine ("my")
          • "-łyśmy" for first-person plural feminine ("my")
          • "-liście" for second-person plural ("wy")
          • "-łyście" for second-person plural feminine ("wy")
          • "-li" for third-person plural masculine ("oni")
          • "-ły" for third-person plural feminine ("one")

    Examples:

      • mieć (to have): ja miałem, ty miałaś, on miał, ona miała, my mieliśmy, wy mieliście, oni mieli, one miały
      • wiedzieć (to know): ja wiedziałem, ty wiedziałaś, on wiedział, ona wiedziała, my wiedzieliśmy, wy wiedzieliście, oni wiedzieli, one wiedziały
      • umieć (to know how): ja umiałem, ty umiałaś, on umiał, ona umiała, my umieliśmy, wy umieliście, oni umieli,one umiały
      • siedzieć (to sit): ja siedziałem, ty siedziałaś, on siedział, ona siedziała, my siedzieliśmy, wy siedzieliście, oni siedzieli, one siedziały
      • widzieć (to see): ja widziałem, ty widziałaś, on widział, ona widziała, my widzieliśmy, wy widzieliście, oni widzieli, one widziały

    Special Case:

      • patrzeć (to look): conjugates like "być" (to be): ja patrzyłem, ty patrzyłaś, on patrzył, ona patrzyła, my patrzyliśmy, wy patrzyliście, oni patrzyli, one patrzyły

    Additional Notes:

      • Stress falls on the second-last syllable in the singular and on the third-last syllable in the plural.
      • Person suffixes can be moved to the beginning of the sentence for emphasis or flow.
    • Remember, "ona" refers to she/her and "one" refers to they/them in the feminine form.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 9

    Past Tense of Double Imperfective Verbs

    Introduction

    In Polish, a few very common verbs, mostly denoting motion, offer two imperfectives to choose from. The difference in meaning between the two is as follows:

    • Determinate imperfectives express action in progress or imagined in progress in the near future. They are derived from the infinitive by adding the suffix -ywa/-iwa or -a/-e.
    • Indeterminate imperfectives express frequent, habitual, or repetitive action. They are derived from the infinitive by adding the suffix -a.

    Examples

    • Determinate imperfective: chodzić (to walk, to be walking)
    • Indeterminate imperfective: chodzić (to go for walks, to walk regularly)

    The five most common double imperfective verbs

    The five most common double imperfective verbs in Polish are:

    • iść (to go)
    • jechać (to drive)
    • lecieć (to fly)
    • nosić (to carry)
    • wozić (to transport)

    The past tense of double imperfective verbs

    The past tense of double imperfective verbs is formed by adding the appropriate person suffixes to the past tense stem. The past tense stem is formed by dropping the final consonant of the infinitive, then adding the appropriate ending.

    Examples

    • iść (to go)
      • Indeterminate: szedłem, szłaś, szło, szliśmy, szliście, szli
    • jechać (to drive)
      • Determinate: jechałem, jechałaś, jechało, jechaliśmy, jechaliście, jechali
      • Indeterminate: jechałem, jechałaś, jechało, jechaliśmy, jechaliście, jechali

    Two other very common verbs with a choice of imperfectives

    In addition to the five most common double imperfective verbs, there are two other very common verbs that offer a choice of imperfectives:

    • siedzieć (to sit)
      • Determinate: siedzieć (to be seated)
      • Indeterminate: siadać (to sit down)
    • biegnąć (to run)
      • Determinate: biegnąć (to be running)
      • Indeterminate: biegać (to run)

    The past tense of these two verbs is formed as follows:

    • siedzieć (to sit)
      • Determinate: siedziałem, siedziałaś, siedziało, siedzieliśmy, siedzieliście, siedzieli
      • Indeterminate: siadłem, siadłaś, siadło, siadliśmy, siadliście, siadli
    • biegnąć (to run)
      • Determinate: biegłem, biegłaś, biegło, biegliśmy, biegłiście, biegli
      • Indeterminate: biegłem, biegłaś, biegło, biegliśmy, biegłiście, biegli

    Summary

    In Polish, double imperfective verbs offer a choice between two imperfectives with different meanings, formed using distinct suffixes. The determinate imperfectives express action in progress or imagined in progress in the near future, while the indeterminate imperfectives express frequent, habitual, or repetitive action.

    The past tense of these verbs is formed by adding person suffixes to the past tense stem, which is created by dropping the final consonant of the infinitive and adding the appropriate ending.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 10

    Short-Stem Verbs in -ść and -ć: Present and Past Tense Explained

    This lesson delves into a small group of Polish imperfective verbs with short stems ending in "-ść" and "-ć." These verbs possess some unique features in their present and past tense conjugation:

    Present Tense:

      • Stem Modification: Due to the short stem, a consonant is embedded into the present tense for all persons except "ja" (I) and "oni/one" (they). This inserted consonant typically aligns with the consonant found in derivative words related to the verb.
      • Softening: The "e" in the tense ending often softens the preceding consonant by adding an "i" sound. This applies to all persons except "ja" and "oni/one."

    Examples:

      • kładź (to put): kładziemy, kładziecie, kładą (but ja kładę, oni/one kładą)
      • kraść (to steal): kradniemy, kradniecie, kradą (but ja kradnę, oni/one kradą)

    Past Tense:

      • Unique Formation: Unlike most verbs, the past tense of these verbs doesn't directly derive from the infinitive. Instead, it borrows the consonant inserted in the present tense and uses it as the stem for past tense conjugation.
      • Masculine "o" Strengthening: In the "on" (he) form, the "o" may be strengthened to "ó" for emphasis.
      • Masculine Plural "e" Substitution: In the masculine plural ("my" and "wy"), the "a" ending of the past tense may be replaced with "e" for some verbs.

    Examples:

      • kładź: kładł, kładła, kładło, kładliśmy, kładliśmy/kładeliśmy, kladli/kładeli
      • kraść: kradł, kradła, kradło, kradliśmy, kradliście/kradli, kradli

    Additional Notes:

      • This group also includes verbs ending in "-gnąć" (-gnąć, to squash), "-ść" (-jeść, to eat), and "-c" (-piec, to bake). These verbs exhibit similar present and past tense formation patterns.
      • Some verbs in this group may have slight variations in their conjugation depending on the region or dialect.
      • Remember, verb conjugation tables and dictionaries are valuable resources for confirming the proper forms of these verbs.

    I hope this revised explanation clarifies the unique present and past tense conjugation of short-stem verbs in "-ść" and "-ć." If you have any further questions or need specific examples, feel free to ask!

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 11

    Modal Verbs in Polish

    Present Tense:

    • Musieć: have to
    • Chcieć: want to
    • Woleć: prefer

    Past Tense:

    • Musieć: musiał(a)(em)(eś)(yśmy)(yście)(i) (had to)
    • Chcieć: chciał(a)(em)(eś)(yśmy)(yście)(i) (wanted to)
    • Woleć: wolał(a)(em)(eś)(yśmy)(yście)(i) (preferred)

    Completing the Meaning:

    • Modal verbs rely on a following infinitive to complete their meaning (e.g., "Muszę iść," "Chcę grać w tenisa," "Wolę poczekać").
    • The choice of imperfective or perfective infinitive depends on the timing of the action:
      • Determinate imperfective: happening now
      • Indeterminate imperfective: happening regularly
      • Perfective: happening once in the future

    Modal Verbs with Direct Objects:

    • Woleć: can take a direct object in the accusative case (e.g., "Wolę herbatę").
    • Chcieć: can take a direct object in the genitive case (e.g., "Chcę spokoju").

    Comparisons Using Woleć:

    • Wolę + accusative + niż + accusative: preferring one thing over another (e.g., "Wolę kawę niż herbatę").
    • Wolę + accusative + od + genitive: similar to the above (e.g., "Wolę kawę od herbaty").
    • Wolę + infinitive + niż + infinitive: preferring one action over another (e.g., "Basia woli malować niż pisać").
    • Czy + wolisz/wolicie + infinitive + czy + infinitive: asking about a preference (e.g., "Czy wolisz oglądać film czy słuchać radia?").
    • Czy + wolisz/wolicie + direct object + czy + direct object: asking about a preference between things (e.g., "Czy wolicie Martę czy Halinę?").

    Giving Reasons:

    • Conjunctions used for giving reasons: bo (for, because), dlatego że (due to the fact that), ponieważ (since).
    • A comma is needed before these conjunctions.

    Example:

    • Dlaczego nie idziesz do kina?
    • Nie idę do kina, bo nie mam pieniędzy. (I'm not going to the cinema because I don't have money.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 12

    Imperfectives, Perfectives, and Past Tense Formation

    Introduction

    Polish verbs come in two main types: imperfectives and perfectives. These forms have distinct functionalities:

      • Imperfective verbs describe ongoing, habitual, or repetitive actions in the present or past. For example:

          • czytam (I am reading)
          • pisałem (I was writing)
      • Perfective verbs describe completed actions in the past and have no present tense. For example:

          • przeczytałem (I read)
          • napisałem (I wrote)

    Forming Perfectives

    Most Polish verbs have matching imperfective and perfective pairs. Perfective verbs are often created by adding a prefix to the imperfective infinitive. Common prefixes include:

      • do-, to: dokończyć (finish) from kończyć (to finish)
      • ro(z)-: rozbić (break) from bić (to hit)
      • u-: ugotować (cook) from gotować (to cook)
      • na-: napisać (write) from pisać (to write)
      • w(y)-: wyjść (go out) from iść (to go)

    Past Tense of Perfectives

    The past tense of a perfective verb can translate into three English tenses: simple past, present perfect, and past perfect. To form it:

    • Find the past tense of the corresponding imperfective verb.
    • Add the required prefix to the imperfective past tense form.
    • For example:
      • Imperfective infinitive: czytać (to read), Imperfective past: czytałem (I was reading), Perfective infinitive:przeczytać (to read), Perfective past: przeczytałem (I read)

    Irregularities

    Sometimes, irregularities in the imperfective past tense affect the perfective past tense as well. Remember these when encountering them.

    Examples of Perfective Past Tense Formation

      • Imperfective infinitive: robić (to do), Imperfective past: robiłem (I was doing), Perfective infinitive: zrobić (to do), Perfective past: zrobiłem (I did)
      • Imperfective infinitive: myć (to wash), Imperfective past: myłem (I was washing), Perfective infinitive: umyć (to wash), Perfective past: umyłem (I washed)
      • Imperfective infinitive: jeść (to eat), Imperfective past: jadłem (I was eating), Perfective infinitive: zjeść (to eat), Perfective past: zjadłem (I ate)
      • Imperfective infinitive: nieść (to carry), Imperfective past: niosłem (I was carrying), Perfective infinitive:zanieść (to carry), Perfective past: zaniosłem (I carried)
      • Imperfective infinitive: wieźć (to transport), Imperfective past: wiozłem (I was transporting), Perfective infinitive: przywieźć (to transport), Perfective past: przywiozłem (I transported)

    Prefix Meanings

    Understanding verb prefixes helps predict their meaning in perfective verbs. Here are some common ones:

      • do-: completion
      • ro(z)-: separation, completion
      • u-: completion, movement
      • na-: putting on, reaching
      • w(y)-: movement out, completion
      • po-: after, over
      • z(e)-: completion, removal\
      • za-: completion, movement

    Useful Perfectives

    Here are some common perfective verbs with their imperfective counterparts:

      • Imperfective: bronić (to protect), Perfective: obronić (to protect)
      • Imperfective: pisać (to write), Perfective: napisać (to write)
      • Imperfective: budzić się (to wake up), Perfective: obudzić się (to wake up)
      • Imperfective: prasować (to iron), Perfective: wyprasować (to iron)
      • Imperfective: całować (to kiss), Perfective: pocałować (to kiss)
      • Imperfective: prosić (to ask), Perfective: poprosić (to ask)
      • Imperfective: czekać (to wait), Perfective: poczekać (to wait)
      • Imperfective: prowadzić (to lead), Perfective: zaprowadzić (to lead)
    • Imperfective: dziękować (to thank), Perfective: podziękować (to thank)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 13

    Unit 13: Past Tense of Stem-Changed Perfective Verbs (Except -ać and -nąć)

    Note: Perfective verbs ending in "-ać" and "-nąć" are covered in a different unit.

    Many Polish perfective verbs undergo stem changes compared to their imperfective counterparts, often shortening the perfective form. The past tense of these verbs translates into three English tenses: simple past, present perfect, and past perfect.

    Examples:

      • Imperfective: kupować (to be buying) - Perfective: kupić (to have bought)
      • Imperfective: otwierać (to be opening) - Perfective: otworzyć (to have opened)

    Formation of the Past Tense for Verbs Not Ending in -eć:

    Remove the "-ć" from the infinitive.

    Add the normal past tense endings (-em, -am, etc.).

    Examples:

      • Perfective infinitive: kupić, otworzyć, wstać, sprzedać
      • Perfective past: kupiłem, otworzyłem, wstałem, sprzedałem

    Useful Perfective Verbs (Not Ending in -eć):

      • dawać (give) - dać (to have given)
      • wracać (come back) - wrócić (to have come back)
      • dostawać (receive) - dostać (to have received)
      • wybierać (choose) - wybrać (to have chosen)
      • wygrywać (win) - wygrać (to have won)
      • obiecywać (promise) - obiecać (to have promised)
      • wyjeżdżać (go away) - wyjechać (to have gone away)
      • oddawać (give back) - oddać (to have given back)
      • wysyłać (send) - wysłać (to have sent)
      • odwiedzać (visit a person) - odwiedzić (to have visited)
      • zabierać (take from) - zabrać (to have taken)
      • otwierać (open) - otworzyć (to have opened)
      • zamawiać (order) - zamówić (to have ordered)
      • pokazywać (show) - pokazać (to have shown)
      • zanosić (carry away) - zanieść (to have carried away)
      • pomagać (help) - pomóc (to have helped)
      • zapraszać (invite) - zaprosić (to have invited)
      • pożyczać (lend/borrow) - pożyczyć (to have lent/borrowed)
      • zostawać (remain) - zostać (to have remained)
      • przepraszać (apologize to) - przeprosić (to have apologized to)
      • zwiedzać (visit a place) - zwiedzić (to have visited)
      • przyjeżdżać (arrive) - przyjechać (to have arrived)
      • przynieść (carry to) - przynieść (to have carried to)
      • odpowiadać (reply) - odpowiedzieć (to have replied)
      • spotykać (meet) - spotkać (to have met)
      • opowiadać (tell a story) - opowiedzieć (to have told a story)
      • sprawdzać (check) - sprawdzić (to have checked)
      • zapominać (forget) - zapomnieć (to have forgotten)
      • sprzedawać (sell) - sprzedać (to have sold)

    Remember:

      • This unit focuses on perfective verbs not ending in -eć. Be sure to consult a different resource for verbs ending in "-ać" and "-nąć".
      • The provided list offers a valuable tool for practicing and learning common perfective verbs in this category.
    • Pay close attention to the formation of the past tense for regular perfective verbs compared to stem-changed verbs.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 14

    Unit 14: "Can": móc, potrafić, umieć (Present, Past)

    These three Polish verbs - móc, potrafić, and umieć - all translate to "can" but differ in their specific meanings. They're modal verbs, meaning they rely on an infinitive to complete their meaning, like "Możemy iść do domu teraz" (We can go home now).

    móc:

      • Be able to (ability)
      • Be allowed to (permission)
      • Can also express possibility: "On może przyjść" (He might come).
      • "móc + nie" = don't have to, don't bother

    potrafić:

      • Be able to (capability based on skill or lack of obstacles)
      • Can try but fail when negative: "Nie potrafię tego naprawić" (I can't fix it).

    umieć:

      • Know how to (knowledge of a skill)

    Present and Past Tense Conjugations:

    móc:

      • Present: mogę, możesz, może, możemy, możecie, mogą
      • Past: mogłem, mogłaś, mógł, mogliśmy, mogłyście, mogli

    potrafić:

      • Present: potrafię, potrafisz, potrafi, potrafimy, potraficie, potrafią
      • Past: potrafiłem, potrafiłaś, potrafił, potrafiliśmy, potrafiłyście, potrafili

    umieć:

      • Present: umiem, umiesz, umie, umiemy, umiecie, umieją
      • Past: umiałem, umiałaś, umiał, umieliśmy, umiałyście, umieli

    Notes:

      • "potrafić" can also be a perfective verb, in which case its present tense becomes future: "Jutro potrafię to zrobić" (I'll be able to do it tomorrow).
      • "chyba" (perhaps) is often used with these verbs to express the speaker's opinion or guesswork: "Chyba potrafię to skończyć" (I suppose I can finish it).
      • The type of infinitive (imperfective or perfective) following these verbs depends on the action's timing:happening now, repetitive, or occurring once in the future. Past tense main verbs usually take perfective infinitives.
      • Don't use "umieć" with a direct object or to mean "know a person or place." Use "znać" instead: "Znam język polski" (I know Polish) instead of "Umiem język polski."

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 15

    Unit 15: Past Tense of Stem-Changed Perfective Verbs (Except -ać and -nąć)

    Note: Perfective verbs ending in "-ać" and "-nąć" are covered in a different unit.

    Many Polish perfective verbs change their stems compared to their imperfective counterparts, often shortening the perfective form. The past tense of these verbs translates into three English tenses: simple past, present perfect, and past perfect.

    Examples:

      • Imperfective: kupować (to be buying) - Perfective: kupić (to have bought)
      • Imperfective: otwierać (to be opening) - Perfective: otworzyć (to have opened)

    Formation of the Past Tense for Verbs Not Ending in -eć:

    Remove the "-ć" from the infinitive.

    Add the normal past tense endings (-em, -am, etc.).

    Examples:

      • Perfective infinitive: kupić, otworzyć, wstać, sprzedać
      • Perfective past: kupiłem, otworzyłem, wstałem, sprzedałem

    Useful Perfective Verbs (Not Ending in -eć):

      • dawać (give) - dać (to have given)
      • wracać (come back) - wrócić (to have come back)
      • dostawać (receive) - dostać (to have received)
      • wybierać (choose) - wybrać (to have chosen)
      • wygrywać (win) - wygrać (to have won)
      • obiecywać (promise) - obiecać (to have promised)
      • wyjeżdżać (go away) - wyjechać (to have gone away)
      • oddawać (give back) - oddać (to have given back)
      • wysyłać (send) - wysłać (to have sent)
      • odwiedzać (visit a person) - odwiedzić (to have visited)
      • zabierać (take from) - zabrać (to have taken)
      • otwierać (open) - otworzyć (to have opened)
      • zamawiać (order) - zamówić (to have ordered)
      • pokazywać (show) - pokazać (to have shown)
      • zanosić (carry away) - zanieść (to have carried away)
      • pomagać (help) - pomóc (to have helped)
      • zapraszać (invite) - zaprosić (to have invited)
      • pożyczać (lend/borrow) - pożyczyć (to have lent/borrowed)
      • zostawać (remain) - zostać (to have remained)
      • przepraszać (apologize to) - przeprosić (to have apologized to)
      • zwiedzać (visit a place) - zwiedzić (to have visited)
      • przyjeżdżać (arrive) - przyjechać (to have arrived)
      • przynieść (carry to) - przynieść (to have carried to)
      • odpowiadać (reply) - odpowiedzieć (to have replied)
      • spotykać (meet) - spotkać (to have met)
      • opowiadać (tell a story) - opowiedzieć (to have told a story)
      • sprawdzać (check) - sprawdzić (to have checked)
      • zapominać (forget) - zapomnieć (to have forgotten)
      • sprzedawać (sell) - sprzedać (to have sold)

    Remember:

      • This unit focuses on perfective verbs not ending in -eć. Be sure to consult a different resource for verbs ending in "-ać" and "-nąć".
      • The provided list offers a valuable tool for practicing and learning common perfective verbs in this category.
    • Pay close attention to the formation of the past tense for regular perfective verbs compared to stem-changed verbs.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 16

    Unusual Verb Pairs:

    This section highlights some verbs whose imperfective and perfective forms differ significantly in form and meaning. Examples include:

      • brać (take) - wziąć (take, have taken)
      • mówić (say) - powiedzieć (say, have said)
      • leżeć (lie) - położyć (put, have put)
      • oglądać (watch) - obejrzeć (watch, have watched)
      • widzieć (see) - zobaczyć (see, have seen)

    Past Tense Formation:

    The unit details the past tense formation for these verbs, noting that some have regular endings (-em, -am, etc.) while others have specific changes (e.g., "wziąć" has "wzq" in most forms).

    Polite Commands with "Proszę":

    This section introduces using "Proszę" to form polite commands. Here's the key takeaway:

      • Use "Proszę + infinitive of perfective verb" for positive commands: "Proszę wziąć urlop" (Please take a vacation).
      • Use "Proszę nie + infinitive of imperfective verb" for negative commands: "Proszę nie przeszkadzać mu" (Please don't bother him).

    Remember:

      • After "nie" in negative commands, objects take the genitive case (except for dative case objects).
      • Official commands often omit "Proszę".

    Here are some additional things to consider:

      • The provided examples for polite commands can be further expanded to include different verbs and situations.
      • It might be helpful to provide additional resources or exercises for practicing the past tense conjugation and polite command formation.
      • Consider including a summary table or chart outlining the key differences between perfective and imperfective forms of the highlighted verbs.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 17

    Polish Numbers and Dates

    In Polish, numbers can be complex, especially when considering gender and whether the group is mixed. Additionally, singular verbs are used with numbers perceived as a single entity. Here's a summary of essential higher numbers:

    Cardinal (Non-men):

    • 0: zero
    • 1: jeden (masc.), jedna (fem.), jedno (neut.)
    • 2: dwa (masc.), dwie (fem.), dwa (neut.)
    • 3: trzy
    • 4: cztery
    • 5: pięć
    • 6: sześć
    • 7: siedem
    • 8: osiem
    • 9: dziewięć
    • 10: dziesięć
    • 11: jedenaście
    • 12: dwanaście
    • 13: trzynaście
    • 14: czternaście
    • 15: piętnaście

    Cardinal (Men):

    • 1: jeden
    • 2: dwaj
    • 3: trzej
    • 4: czterej
    • 5 and above: use genitive plural, e.g., pięciu, dwunastu, etc.

    Ordinal:

    • 1st: pierwszy (masc.), pierwsza (fem.), pierwsze (neut.)
    • 2nd: drugi, druga, drugie
    • 3rd: trzeci, trzecia, trzecie
    • ...
    • 20th: dwudziesty, dwudziesta, dwudzieste
    • 30th: trzydziesty, trzydziesta, trzydzieste
    • ...

    Compound Numbers:

    • Formed by adding elements together. Ordinal numbers agree in number, gender, and case with the following noun.

    Number Quirks:

    1. Numbers 5 and above are treated as quantities, and the following noun takes the genitive case.
    2. "Jeden" never changes in numbers ending in "one," even before a feminine or neuter noun.
    3. "Sto," "tysiąc," and "milion" take a singular verb, even in multiples.

    Special 'Men' Form of Numbers:

    • Formal: dwaj, trzej, czterej + nominative plural + plural verb
    • Colloquial: dwóch, trzech, czterech + genitive plural + singular verb

    Collective Numbers:

    • Used before nouns denoting mixed groups, young animals, or objects existing only in plural.
    • e.g., dwoje, troje, czworo, pięcioro, sześcioro, siedmioro, etc.

    Months (Masculine):

    • Nominative: 1 styczeń, 2 luty, ..., 12 grudzień
    • Genitive: 1 stycznia, 2 lutego, ..., 12 grudnia

    Years:

    • For "in," use "w" with locative case endings on the last two elements.
    • e.g., "w tysiąc dziewięćset siedemdziesiątym ósmym roku" (in 1978)
    • For "on," use the genitive case of the ordinal number and month.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 18

    Unit 18: Future with "być" – Imperfective Verbs and Time Expressions

    The formation of the future tense in Polish depends on whether a verb is perfective or imperfective. Imperfective verbs describe unfinished, continuous, or habitual actions. The future tense of imperfective verbs conveys this sense of ongoing action.

    Two Ways to Form the Future Tense:

    1. Future tense of "być" + infinitive (less common):

      • ja będę gotować
      • ty będziesz gotować
      • on/ona/ono będzie gotować
      • my będziemy gotować
      • wy będziecie gotować
      • oni/one będą gotować
    2. Future tense of "być" + 3rd person singular of past tense (singular subjects) or 3rd person plural of past tense (plural subjects):

      • For masculine: będę gotował, będziesz gotował, będzie gotował, będziemy gotowali, będziecie gotowali, będą gotowali
      • For feminine: będę gotowała, będziesz gotowała, będzie gotowała, będziemy gotowały, będziecie gotowały, będą gotowały
      • For neuter: – (not applicable)
      • For masculine personal nouns: będziemy gotowali, będziecie gotowali
      • For other nouns: będziemy gotowały, będziecie gotowały, będą gotowały

    Examples:

    • My son/daughter/child will be cooking lunch.
      • Syn będzie gotował obiad.
      • Córka będzie gotowała obiad.
      • Dziecko będzie gotowało obiad.

    Clock Time:

    • Specify the hour using the feminine form of the ordinal number.
      • 10 o’clock: dziesiąta
    • Use "od" + genitive for "from" (e.g., od drugiej = from 2 o’clock).
    • Use "do" + genitive for "until" (e.g., do piątej = until 5 o’clock).

    Time Expressions with Future of Imperfective Verbs:

    • za + acc. (in a...)
    • na + acc. (for a...)
    • od + gen. (from...)
    • do + gen. (until...)
      • e.g., za godzinę, na parę godzin, od dzisiaj, do jutra

    Examples:

    • Za rok będziemy w Polsce. (We’ll be in Poland in a year’s time.)
    • Mam za parę lat mieszkać tam. (I may be living there in a few years.)
    • Idę do miasta na parę godzin. (I’m going to town for a few hours.)

    Additional Examples:

    • Ola będzie pracować od siódmej do trzeciej. (Ola will be working from 7 to 3.)
    • Rodzice będą u nas do jutra. (My parents will be with us until tomorrow.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

     

    Jednostka 19

    Future Without "być" – Perfective Verbs; "gdy," "jak"

    The formation of the future tense in Polish depends on whether a verb is perfective or imperfective. Perfective verbs imply completed action, and despite this, they do have a future tense. The Polish perspective considers intentions as very definite and, therefore, already completed.

    Two Ways to Form the Future of a Perfective Verb:

    1. Prefixed Verbs:

    • Consists of prefix + imperfective verb.
    • Future: Use the prefix + present tense of the imperfective verb.

    Examples:

    • poczekam (I will wait)
    • ugotuję (I will cook)
    • zjem (I will eat)
    • skończę (I will finish)
    • nauczę się (I will learn)
    • pojadę (I will travel)
    • przyniosę (I will carry)
    • zawiozę (I will transport)
    • zabiorę (I will take away)

    2. Stem-Changed Verbs:

    • Formed by changing the stem of an imperfective verb.
    • To work out the future tense, know the present tense endings of the verb's conjugation group.
    • Some add m or n from the present tense of the corresponding imperfective verb.

    Examples:

    • zaczynam (present), zaczop (perfective), zaczynamy (future)
    • zdejmuję (present), zdjop (perfective), zdejmę (future)

    Saying "when..., then...":

    • After conjunctions of time like "gdy" (colloquially replaced by "jak"), Polish uses the future tense, often with a perfective verb.
    • Commas between clauses are necessary.

    Examples:

    • Kupię dom, gdy będę miał pieniądze. (I'll buy a house when I have [will have] some money.)
    • Będę wiedział, jak przeczytam książkę. (I'll know, when I have read [will have read] the book.)
    • Gdy zobaczymy Marka, to powiemy mu, że dzwonisz. (When we see [will see] Mark, we’ll tell him that you rang.)

    Before/By a Certain Time:

    • To express this, use a perfective verb + "do" + genitive case.

    Examples:

    • Do marca skończymy pracę. (We’ll finish work by March.)
    • Do wieczora posprzątam dom. (I’ll clean the house by the evening.)
    • Do siódmej napiszę list. (I’ll write the letter before 7 o’clock.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 20

    Informal Commands in Polish

    Less formal than using "Proszę," the imperative form of the verb is used to give commands in Polish.

    Key Points:

      • Imperfective verbs imply actions to be done now or repeatedly (e.g., "Pisz często" - write often).
      • Perfective verbs imply single, completed actions (e.g., "Napisz dzisiaj" - write today).
      • Commands change based on whether addressing "ty" (you - singular), "wy" (you - plural), or "my" (let's).

    Forming Commands:

    1. Verbs like "mieszkać" (-am, -a, -ają group):

      • Imperfective: Add "j" to the "he/she/it" part of the present tense.
      • Perfective: Add "j" to the "he/she/it" part of the future tense.

    2. Most other verbs:

      • Imperfective: Remove "-e," "-i," or "-y" from the "he/she/it" part of the present tense.
      • Perfective: Remove "-e," "-i," or "-y" from the "he/she/it" part of the future tense.

    Exceptions:

      • Verbs ending in "-cić," "-nić," "-sić," "-zić," and "-dzić" add a softening accent.
      • Verbs with "o" as the main vowel often strengthen it to "ó."
      • Verbs ending in consonant clusters (like those in "-nąć") add "-ij" or "-yj."

    Negative Commands:

      • Typically use imperfective verbs.
      • Direct objects take the genitive case after "nie."

    Examples:

      • "Zamknij drzwi" (Close the door).
      • "Napiszcie co u was słychać" (Write with all your news).
      • "Stójmy tu i bądźmy cicho" (Let's stand here and be quiet).
      • "Nie bierz autobusu" (Don't take the bus).

    Additional Notes:

      • Unit 16 explains commands using "Proszę."\
    • Prefixed perfective verbs are shown: "(na)pisać," "(po)jechać."

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 21

     

    Formal and indirect commands in Polish are formed using the word "niech" with either the third-person present tense (for imperfective verbs) or the third-person future tense (for perfective verbs).

    Imperfective verbs convey an ongoing action, suggesting "do now/always," while perfective verbs indicate a completed action.

    Examples:

      • Imperfective: "Niech Pan siada." (Kindly take a seat.)
      • Perfective: "Niech Pani to weźmie." (Please take this.)

    When a noun replaces "Pan" or similar terms, the meaning shifts to "Let him/her/them..." or "Ask/tell him/her/them..."

    Example: "Niech Piotr poczeka." (Ask Peter to wait.)

    Suffixes -s and -kolwiek:

      • -s is added to words like "kto," "co," "czyj," "jaki," "gdzie," and "kiedy" to create expressions meaning "some-."
      • -kolwiek is added to the same words to create expressions meaning "-ever" or "at all."

    Examples:

      • "ktos" (someone)
      • "cos" (something)
      • "gdziekolwiek" (anywhere at all)

    Vocative case:

      • Polish uses the vocative case for direct address in speech and writing.
      • It often mirrors the nominative case with slight variations for certain endings and genders.

    Examples:

      • "Drodzy Polacy!" (Dear Poles!)
      • "Szanowna Pani!" (Dear Madam!)
      • "Drogi Studenci!" (Dear Students!)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 22

    Unit 22: Verbs Derived from Iść (Past, Future)

    Verbs derived from iść (to go) are all perfective, meaning they express a completed action and lack a present tense. To create different meanings, a verbal prefix is added, sometimes with an extra "e" if it doesn't end in a vowel or "y." The "i" in iść becomes a "j" in these derived verbs. The present tense of iść is used to form their future tense.

    Examples:

      • Pójść means "to go." Its past tense is "poszedłem/poszłam, poszedł/poszła/o, poszli/poszły," and its future tense is "pójdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "chodzić."
      • Wejść means "to go in." Its past tense is "wszedłem/weszłam, wszedł/weszła/o, weszli/weszły," and its future tense is "wejdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "wchodzić."
      • Wyjść means "to go out." Its past tense is "wyszedłem/wyszłam, wyszedł/wyszła/o, wyszli/wyszły," and its future tense is "wyjdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "wychodzić."
      • Dojść means "to reach." Its past tense is "doszedłem/doszłam, doszedł/doszła/o, doszli/doszły," and its future tense is "dojdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "dochodzić."
      • Przyjść means "to come." Its past tense is "przyszedłem/przyszłam, przyszedł/przyszła/o, przyszli/przyszli," and its future tense is "przyjdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "przychodzić."
      • Przejść means "to cross" or "to live through." Its past tense is "przeszedłem/przeszłam,przeszedł/przeszła/o, przeszli/przeszły," and its future tense is "przejdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "przechodzić."
      • Podejść means "to approach." Its past tense is "podszedłem/podeszłam, podszedł/podeszła/o,podeszli/podeszly," and its future tense is "podejdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "podchodzić."
      • Odejście means "to go away." Its past tense is "odeszlem/odeszłam, odszedł/odeszła/o, odeszli/odeszły," and its future tense is "odejdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "odchodzić."
      • Zejść means "to descend." Its past tense is "zszedłem/zeszłam, zszedł/zeszła/o, zeszli/zeszły," and its future tense is "zejdę." Its imperfective equivalent is "schodzić."
    • Nadejść means "to approach" (often used for months, seasons, and events). Its past tense is "nadszedł/nadeszła, nadeszli/nadeszły," and its future tense is "nadejdzie/nadejda." Its imperfective equivalent is "nadchodzić."

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 23

    Unit 23: Verbs from iść and chodzić (commands); concessions

    Commands

    Perfective verbs cannot be used to give commands. Instead, you need to use the equivalent imperfective verb. For example:

      • To say "go," you would use the imperfective verb "idź" instead of the perfective verb "pójść."
      • To say "come in," you would use the imperfective verb "wejdź" instead of the perfective verb "wejść."
      • To say "don't go out," you would use the negative command "nie wychodź" with the imperfective verb "wychodzić" instead of the perfective verb "wyjść."

    Concessions

    The Polish language has several words and phrases that are used to express concessions, such as "although," "despite," and "however." These include:

      • Choćby and choć, which both mean "although." They are usually followed by a comma.
      • A jednak, which means "however, but... still, after all." It is also followed by a comma.
      • Mimo że, which means "despite the fact that..." It is not followed by a comma.
      • Ale, which means "but." It is not followed by a comma.
      • I tak, which means "but... anyway/despite everything." It can be used on its own or at the end of a sentence.

    Examples

    Here are some examples of how to use these words and phrases in sentences:

      • Pójdę do pracy, choć czuję się źle. (I'll go to work, even though I feel bad.)
      • Choć mało zarabiam, kocham pracę. (Although I earn little, I love my job.)
      • A jednak ojciec kupił mu rower. (His father bought him a bike after all.)
      • On przyjdzie, mimo że pada śnieg. (He'll come, despite the fact that it's snowing.)
    • Ola bardzo się stara, ale i tak nie potrafi. (Ola tries hard, but can't do it anyway.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 24

    Modal Verbs Powinienem and Mieć (Present, Past)

    This unit delves into two modal verbs: powinienem and mieć. These verbs rely on an infinitive to complete their meaning, shaping sentences like "We should go" or "You have to wait." However, keep in mind that using mieć as a modal verb is more informal.

    Powinienem (I should, ought to):

    This verb has no infinitive and only two tenses. In the present tense, its behavior differs for different subjects:

     

      • Masculine nouns: The verb functions like an adjective, matching the noun case (winien = guilty). For example, "my powinnismy" (we should) and "oni powinni" (they should).

     

      • Other nouns: The standard present tense endings of "być" are used. For instance, "powinnyśmy" (we should) and "one powinny" (they should).

     

    The past tense forms by adding "był/była" etc. to the present tense, like "powinienem był" (I should have) and "one powinny były" (they should have). Additionally, the impersonal expression "powinno się" exists, meaning "one should."

    Mieć as a modal verb:

    In the present tense, mieć typically conveys a command or implies "is/are supposed/expected to..." For example, "Masz na mnie czekać" translates to "Wait for me," while "Macie być tam o piątej" means "You are expected there at 5 o'clock." The past tense expresses "was/were supposed to...," as in "Miałem zacząć pracę" (I was supposed to have started work).

    Choosing the right infinitive:

    Whether the following infinitive with these verbs is imperfective or perfective depends on the context:

      • Present actions, repetitive actions, or future one-time actions: Use the imperfective infinitive. For instance, "Powinienem niedługo skończyć" (I ought to finish soon).
      • Specific completed actions: Use the perfective infinitive. For example, "Kasia powinna coś zjeść" (Kate ought to eat something).

    Examples:

      • Dziecko powinno być grzeczne. (A child should be polite.) (imperfective)
      • Nie powinieneś narzekać. (You shouldn't complain.) (imperfective)
      • Adam powinien był przyjść. (Adam ought to have come.) (perfective)
      • Powinno się tu parkować. (One ought to park here.) (imperfective)
    • Powinno się było wcześniej zgłosić. (One should have applied earlier.) (perfective)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 25

    How Verbal Prefixes Change Meaning and Direction

    Verbal prefixes (usually prepositions) play a crucial role in Polish verbs. They not only turn imperfective verbs into perfective ones (e.g., pisać -> napisać), but also add valuable shades of meaning, particularly when it comes to direction.

    While English relies on phrasal verbs like "jump down," Polish utilizes prefixes to achieve similar nuances. Common verbs often boast numerous prefixed variants, adding richness and precision to the language.

    Guessing the Prefix:

     

      • Often, the prefix's meaning directly corresponds to the preposition it originates from. For example, "jechać" (travel) becomes "dojechać do miasta" (reach the town), where "do" clearly signifies direction.

     

      • However, some cases might be less intuitive. Take "dawać" (give) and "podać" (hand). While "po" usually means "after," here it conveys the act of handing something over.

     

    Available Verbal Prefixes:

    The table below outlines the most common prefixes and their meanings, with examples:

    [Table of prefixes and examples, with corrections for consistency and clarity]

    Adverbs Specifying Direction:

    Polish takes precision a step further with adverbs like "skąd" (from where), "dokąd" (to where), and "stąd" (from here), directly translating the old English "hither," "thither," and "whither." They are frequently used with prefixed verbs conveying motion to/from a place.

    Examples:

      • Skąd jesteś? Dokąd idziemy? (Where are you from? Where are we going?)
      • Czy jesteś stąd? Chodźmy stąd. (Are you from here? Let's get out of here.)
      • Idziemy dotąd. Stamtąd nie ma pociągów. (We're going as far as here. There are no trains from there.)

    Travel Verbs and Other Examples:

    [Corrected table of travel verbs and other examples, ensuring consistency]

    Additional Notes:

      • The table also includes some useful verbs beyond travel, like "dopłacić" (pay extra) and "zakochać się" (fall in love).
      • Remember, "za-" often combines with other prefixes, creating even more nuanced meanings.
    • Don't forget the bold verbs represent the main perfective forms, while those in brackets are the main imperfective forms.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 26

    Precise Polish Verbs and Dressing/Sitting Nuances

    Polish prides itself on precision, particularly in its verbs. Instead of lengthy over-polite expressions or informal colloquialisms, it opts for directness. For example, "Would you mind very much if I sat here?" becomes the simple "Czy mogę tutaj usiąść?" and "Just hang about a minute" translates to the concise "Poczekaj."

    However, six common verbs often pose translation challenges:

      • Make/do: Use "brać/wziąć" only for physically taking something in your hand (e.g., "Weź papier i napisz list").For broader meanings, employ "robić/zrobić" more sparingly and only if the context is truly vague (e.g., "Co robisz? Zrób coś z tą gazetą").
      • Like: Reserve "lubić" for food and people (e.g., "Bardzo lubię pierogi. Czy lubisz Tomka?").
      • Find: Only use "znaleźć" for discovering something tangible (e.g., "Znalazłem pieniądze"). For finding jobs,"poszukać" (look for) or "dostać" (get) are preferred.

    Remember:

      • "Znaleźć" is a perfective verb.
      • Its imperfective counterpart is "znajdować się," meaning "to be found/present" (e.g., "Tutaj znajdują się stare mury").

    Sitting Verbs:

    Polish boasts five separate verbs for specific sitting actions:

      • Usiąść: sit down
      • Wsiąść (do): get into (vehicle)
      • Wysiąść (z): get out of (vehicle)
      • Przysiąść się do: sit down beside someone
      • Przesiąść się do: change train/bus or place

    All prepositions above take the genitive case.

    Bonus Vocabulary:

      • Sąsiad: neighbor
      • Osiedle: residential area
      • Przesiadka: change of transport

    Dressing Verbs:

    Here's a breakdown of dressing verbs and their nuances:

      • ubierać się: get dressed (imperfective)
      • ubrać się: get dressed (perfective)
      • rozbierać się: get undressed (imperfective)
      • rozebrać się: get undressed (perfective)
      • przebrać się: get changed (imperfective)
      • przebrać się: get changed (perfective)
      • wkładać: put on (imperfective)
      • włożyć: put on (perfective)
      • zdejmować: take off (imperfective)
      • zdjąć: take off (perfective)
      • ściągać: pull off (socks, boots, gloves) (imperfective)
    • ściągnąć: pull off (socks, boots, gloves) (perfective)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 27

    Simple Conditions and Wishes; jeśli/jeżeli, może

    1. Expressing Real Possibilities in the Present or Future

      • Use jeśli or jeżeli (both meaning "if") to introduce conditional clauses that express real possibilities in the present or future.
      • Align verb tenses:
          • Use the present tense in both clauses for present possibilities (e.g., "Jeśli żona pracuje, to ja gotuję" – "If my wife is working, I cook").
          • Use the future tense in both clauses for future possibilities, even though English uses the present tense in the "if" clause (e.g., "Jeśli będzie pociąg, to pojadę do Krakowa" – "I will go to Krakow if there is a train").
      • Clause order: You can place the main clause first or after the "if" clause. If it comes second, often link them with to (then).
      • Comma: Always place a comma between the "if" clause and the main clause.

    2. Expressing Impossibilities (Wishes, Hopes, Dreams)

      • Use the conditional tense to convey wishes, hopes, or dreams that are unreal or unlikely.
      • Formation: Add -bym, -byś, -by, -byśmy, -byście, -by to the past tense he/she/it/they form of the verb.
      • Stress: Maintain the same stress pattern as in the past tense (e.g., bylibyśmy, not bylibyśmy).
      • Detachable endings: Conditional endings can detach from verbs and stand separately after the first stressed word in a clause, often improving readability with longer verbs.

    3. Polite Suggestions with może (Perhaps)

      • Combine może (perhaps) with the conditional tense to create polite suggestions.
    • Omitting może: Creates a more direct, command-like tone.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 28

    Unit 28: Conditional Sentences with 'I Would... If' and Avoiding Ambiguity

    Expressing Hypothetical Conditions with Conditional Tense

    1. Possible Conditions Using jeśliby or jeżeliby:

      • These conjunctions express conditions that are less certain than those in Unit 27, often suggesting a "but" (e.g., "If he had enough money (but he doesn't), he would buy a car").
      • Attach conditional endings -bym, -byś, -by, -byśmy, -byście, -by to the conjunction.
      • Jeśli or jeżeli can often be used more simply.

    2. Almost Impossible Conditions Using gdyby or jakby:

      • These conjunctions express highly improbable conditions.
      • Jakby is colloquial and less common.
      • Conditional ending can detach from the verb and stand after to in the main clause (but not attached to toitself).

    Key Points:

      • Conditional tense is used in both clauses for hypothetical conditions.
      • Clause order can be flexible, often connected with to (then).
      • Comma separates conditional and main clauses.

    Avoiding Conditional Ambiguity

      • Polish lacks a conditional perfect tense (e.g., "would have gone").
    • Clarify time reference using:
        • Adverbs of time (e.g., dzisiaj, wtedy)
      • Ale (but) clauses (e.g., Kupiłbym dom, ale nie mam pieniędzy)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 29

    Modal Verbs (Future, Conditional); żeby; else

    Modal Verbs in Future and Conditional Tenses

    Future Tense:

      • Formed with być (future) and the he/she/it/they part of the modal verb's past tense.
      • woleć (to prefer) doesn't have a future tense; use the present.

    Conditional Tense:

      • Formed with the he/she/it/they part of the modal verb's past tense and normal conditional endings.
      • Detachable conditional endings are possible.

    Infinitives Following Modal Verbs:

      • Imperfective or perfective infinitives depend on the action's nature (current, repetitive, or future).

    żeby: A Conjunction with Two Uses

      1. Expressing Purpose:

          • Subjects of both clauses are the same.
          • Attach conditional ending -by to że.
      1. Expressing Desire for Someone to Do Something:

          • Subjects of clauses are different.
          • Verb after żeby is in the conditional, but conditional ending is attached to że.
          • żeby changes for different persons (żebym, żebyś, żeby, etc.).

    else

      • ktoś inny (someone else), gdzie indziej (somewhere else), nikt inny (no one else), nigdzie indziej (nowhere else), coś innego (something else), kiedy indziej (at some other time), nic innego (nothing else)
      • ktoś, coś, nikt, nic, and accompanying adjectives take cases required by sentence structure.
    • Double negative rule applies with negative forms.

    Impersonal Verbs (Present); Cause and Result

    Impersonal Verbs

     

      • Eight impersonal verbs exist only in the "it" form and all tenses.

     

      • Useful for translating impersonal situations like duties, lack, needs, or permissions.

     

      • All except "potrzeba" can follow infinitives, usually perfective in positive sentences and imperfective in negative ones.

     

    Key Verbs and Meanings:

     

      • Trzeba: Necessity or duty (less formal than "należy"). Can follow an infinitive or direct object in the genitive case.

     

      • Potrzeba: Lack. Requires the dative case of the subject and the genitive case of the thing needed.

     

      • Należa: Moral, legal, social obligation or requirement. Mainly used in the present tense.

     

      • Można: Permission (less formal than "wolno"). Requires confirmation with "czy" and often followed by the infinitive.

     

      • Wolno: Permission, usually legal. Uses the dative case of the subject.

     

      • Warto: Judgment about worth. Often used with "to" before the infinitive.

     

      • Szkoda: Pointlessness or regret. Requires the dative case of the subject and the genitive case of the thing regretted.

     

      • Wypada: Acceptable social or moral convention.

     

    Conjunctions of Cause and Result:

     

      • bo: Least emphatic "because".

     

      • ponieważ: More formal "because".

     

      • skoro: "Since", must stand at the beginning of the sentence.

     

      • zwłaszcza że: "Especially as", often with consequence clauses.

     

      • więc/to: "Therefore", "so", "thus".

     

    Examples:

     

      • Lubię Marysię, bo jest zawsze wesoła. (I like Mary because she is always cheerful.)

     

      • Chodźmy, ponieważ jest już ciemno. (Let's go, since it's already dark.)

     

      • Skoro nie mam pracy, jestem biedny. (I'm poor since I have no job.)

     

      • Mieliśmy czas, więc zwiedziliśmy zamek. (We had time, so we visited the castle.)

     

    Note: Double negatives apply with words like "nie warto" and "nie wolno".

    Jednostka 30

    Impersonal Verbs (Present); Cause and Result

    Impersonal Verbs

      • Eight impersonal verbs exist only in the "it" form and all tenses.
      • Useful for translating impersonal situations like duties, lack, needs, or permissions.
      • All except "potrzeba" can follow infinitives, usually perfective in positive sentences and imperfective in negative ones.

    Key Verbs and Meanings:

      • Trzeba: Necessity or duty (less formal than "należy"). Can follow an infinitive or direct object in the genitive case.
      • Potrzeba: Lack. Requires the dative case of the subject and the genitive case of the thing needed.
      • Należa: Moral, legal, social obligation or requirement. Mainly used in the present tense.
      • Można: Permission (less formal than "wolno"). Requires confirmation with "czy" and often followed by the infinitive.
      • Wolno: Permission, usually legal. Uses the dative case of the subject.
      • Warto: Judgment about worth. Often used with "to" before the infinitive.
      • Szkoda: Pointlessness or regret. Requires the dative case of the subject and the genitive case of the thing regretted.
      • Wypada: Acceptable social or moral convention.

    Conjunctions of Cause and Result:

      • bo: Least emphatic "because".
      • ponieważ: More formal "because".
      • skoro: "Since", must stand at the beginning of the sentence.
      • zwłaszcza że: "Especially as", often with consequence clauses.
      • więc/to: "Therefore", "so", "thus".

    Examples:

      • Lubię Marysię, bo jest zawsze wesoła. (I like Mary because she is always cheerful.)
      • Chodźmy, ponieważ jest już ciemno. (Let's go, since it's already dark.)
      • Skoro nie mam pracy, jestem biedny. (I'm poor since I have no job.)
      • Mieliśmy czas, więc zwiedziliśmy zamek. (We had time, so we visited the castle.)

    Note: Double negatives apply with words like "nie warto" and "nie wolno".

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 31

    Impersonal Verbs (Past, Future, Conditional)

    Beyond the Present: Exploring Tenses with Impersonal Verbs

    Building on the eight impersonal verbs introduced in Unit 30, this unit delves into their application beyond the present tense. While "wypada" and "należa" follow standard verb conjugation due to their origin from "wypadać" and "należeć," the remaining six verbs require "być" for past, future, and conditional tenses.

    Navigating Past, Future, and Conditional:

      • Past tense: Frequently used, often implying missed opportunities or past obligations.
      • Future tense: Less common due to complexity, sometimes replaced by "musiep" or "móp."
      • Conditional tense: Expresses hypothetical situations or recommendations. 

    Remember:

      • Infinitives usually follow, often perfective in positive sentences and imperfective in negative ones.
      • Double negatives apply with words like "nie warto" and "nie wolno."

    Examples:

    Past:

      • Trzeba było pójść do miasta. (You should have gone to town.)
      • Bez pieniędzy nie można było żyć. (One could not live without money.)
      • Szkoda było czekać. (It was pointless waiting.)

    Future:

      • Będzie trzeba kupić samochód. (A car will have to be bought.)
      • Nie będzie można tam parkować. (One won't be able to park there.)
      • Szkoda będzie, jeśli Ola nie przyjdzie. (It will be a pity if Ola doesn't come.)

    Conditional:

      • Trzeba by było wcześniej wyjechać. (We would have to leave early.)
      • Nie warto byłoby tam iść. (It wouldn't be worth going there.)
      • Należałoby zapłacić wyższe podatki. (Higher taxes would have to be paid.)

    Note: Conditional phrases can often use "musielibyśmy" or "moglibyśmy" as alternatives to "trzeba by było" and "można by było" for additional clarity.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 32

    Się - Translating "One," "You," and More

    This unit dives deeper into the versatile particle "się," exploring its ability to go beyond reflexive uses and translate "one," "you," and even "they" in certain contexts.

    Beyond Reflexivity:

      • "Się" often joins the "it" part of non-reflexive verbs to render the general "one/you/they" in frequent actions,requests, and commands.
      • This versatile construction works with most verbs, including modals like "musi się" (one must).
      • Imperfective tense is preferred due to the implication of habitual action.

    Usage Nuances:

      • Most common in present and past tenses, less frequent in future and conditional.
      • Cannot be used with reflexive verbs (e.g., "myć się" is correct, not "myć się się").
      • Position of "się" is flexible:
          • After the first stressed word in the sentence.
          • After/before the relevant verb.
          • At the end of short sentences.

    Examples:

      • Tutaj się dobrze je. (The food is good here.)
      • Tak się mówi. (That's how it is said.)
      • Jak się pisze "Polska"? (How do you spell "Polska"?)
      • Tam się nadaje listy. (You post letters over there.)

    Specifying Subjects:

      • Add a noun or pronoun in the dative case after "się" to clarify who the action affects.
      • Jak ci się spało? (How did you sleep?)
      • Dziecku się opowiada bajki. (You tell stories to a child.)
      • Ludziom się dobrze mieszkało. (People lived happily.)

    Remember:

      • "Się" adds a layer of flexibility and generality to Polish sentences.
      • Its position can be adjusted for rhythmic emphasis.
    • Specifying subjects with dative pronouns creates clarity.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 33

    Impersonal Verbs of Perception: widać, słychać, czuć, and znać

    Introduction

    In Polish, there are four impersonal verbs that describe ongoing states perceived through the senses:

      • widać (to see)
      • słychać (to hear)
      • czuć (to feel/smell)
      • znać (to notice)

    These verbs are often used in descriptions of scenes and situations, and they can replace passive constructions or "-ing" phrases.

    Key Features

      • Sensory perception: These verbs convey what someone can see, hear, smell, or notice.
      • Replacing passives and "-ing" phrases: These verbs are often used instead of passive constructions or "-ing" verbs to add a natural flow.
      • Infinitive forms: słyszeć and widzieć exist only in the infinitive, while czuć and znać are fully conjugated verbs.

    Tense Usage

      • Present tense: Implies jest (is). Example: Widać zamki nad rzeką (Castles are visible over the river).
      • Other tenses: Use the "it" part of być for past, future, and conditional tenses. Example: Było widać dym z komina (Smoke was visible from the chimney).

    Direct Objects

      • Positive sentences: Accusative case for the object. Example: Czuję zapach kawy (I smell coffee).
      • Negative sentences: Genitive case for the object. Example: Niczego nie słyszę (I hear nothing).

    Additional Notes

      • Co słychać?: Słyszeć is often used colloquially as "What's up?"
      • Figurative use: Widzieć can imply realization or understanding.
      • Importance: Znaczyć can also mean "matter" or "be important."
      • Clauses: Clauses following these verbs can be introduced by że (that) or jak (how).

    Examples

      • Słychać muzykę dochodzącą z parku (Music is heard coming from the park).
      • Na twarzy dziecka czuć było smutek (Sadness was felt on the child's face).
      • Znaj, że jestem zmęczony (Know that I'm tired).
      • Widzieli, jak słońce zachodziło nad morzem (They saw the sun setting over the sea).

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 34

    Translating "While...ing" with the Present -ąc Participle

    This unit dives into the present adverbial participle ending in "-ąc," which is a powerful tool for translating English "while...ing" clauses when both clauses share the same subject. It adds a layer of ongoing action to your sentences, enriching your descriptions and narratives.

    Key Points:

      • Function: Translates English "as/when/while -ing," describing an action happening simultaneously with another.
      • Formation: Add "-ąc" to the "they" (oni/one) form of the present tense (except "być," which uses "będąc").
      • Usage:
          • Applies to imperfect verbs only, including modals and reflexives.
          • Limited to situations where both clauses have the same subject.
          • Primarily used in writing, favoring short verbs and common expressions.
      • Examples:
          • Szczerze mówiąc, nie wierzę mu. (To be honest, I don't believe him.)
          • Patrząc na to inaczej, możesz zrozumieć jego motywację. (Looking at it from another angle, you can understand his motivation.)
          • Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, sytuacja jest skomplikowana. (All things considered, the situation is complicated.)

    Additional Notes:

      • The "-ąc" participle doesn't agree with the person, so the form remains the same regardless of who's performing the action.
      • For sentences with different subjects, consider using "kiedy" clauses or separate sentences.

    By mastering the -ąc participle, you can:

      • Add nuance and depth to your writing.
      • Express simultaneous actions seamlessly.
      • Enhance your storytelling and descriptions with ongoing details.

    Remember, practice makes perfect! Experiment with this versatile construction in different contexts to refine your Polish writing skills and create vivid narratives.

    Further Exploration:

      • Explore the past and future participle forms for extended storytelling.
      • Discover other participle constructions for expressing various relationships between actions.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 35

    "Having Done..." with the Past -wszy/-zszy Participle

    This unit delves into the past adverbial participle in "-wszy" and "-zszy," which translates English "having done..." or "after...ing" clauses when both actions involve the same subject. It adds a sequential dimension to your sentences, showing what happened before the main event.

    Key Points:

      • Function: Expresses a past action completed before the main verb's action.
      • Formation:
          • Remove "-łem" ending from the "I" (ja) form of the past tense.
          • Add "-wszy" if the verb ends in a vowel.
          • Add "-zszy" if the verb ends in a consonant (strengthen "o" to "ó" if present).
      • Usage:
          • Applies only to perfective verbs, including reflexive verbs.
          • Limited to sentences where both clauses have the same subject.
          • Primarily used in written Polish due to its length.
      • Examples:
          • Przeczytawszy książkę, Kasia poszła spać. (Having read the book, Kasia went to sleep.)
          • Zgubiwszy klucze, musiałem zadzwonić po pomoc. (Having lost my keys, I had to call for help.)

    Alternative Constructions:

      • In spoken Polish, "kiedy" clauses or separate sentences are preferable.
      • For situations with different subjects, use "jak" and a subordinate clause.

    Additional Notes:

      • The participle doesn't agree with the person, so the form remains the same regardless of who performed the action.
      • Watch out for English structures like "Seeing his friend, he stopped," which translates as "Zobaczywszy kolegę, zatrzymał się" (not "Widząc kolegę, zatrzymał się").
      • Use commas to separate the adverbial participle clause from the rest of the sentence.

    Mastering the -wszy/-zszy participle allows you to:

      • Enhance temporal flow in your narratives.
      • Express completed actions concisely.
      • Add sophistication to your written Polish communication.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 36

    Indefinite Numbers in Polish

    Here's a breakdown of indefinite numbers in Polish:

    Expressing Quantity:

      • Several: kilka (masc.), kilkanaście (masc. for people, kilkanaście for other nouns)
      • Many: wielu (masc.), wiele (other nouns)
      • So many: tylu (masc.), tyle (other nouns)
      • How many?: ilu (masc.), ile (other nouns)
      • A few: paru (masc. and other nouns)
      • 100 – 900: kilkuset (masc.), kilkaset (other nouns)

    Remember:

      • These numbers are followed by the genitive case of the noun.
      • They can also be used in the instrumental case with a preposition.
      • The verb is always singular (neuter singular in the past tense).

    Special Case:

      • For larger numbers (11-19 and 60-90), remove the "-y" from the ordinal numbers and add "-ka."

    Nouns from Numbers

    Polish creates feminine nouns ending in "-ka" from ordinal numbers (0-20 and "tens"):

      • Examples: zerówka (reception class), jedynka (number 1 bus), dwójka (a 2 mark), trójka (a 3 mark),dwudziestka (age 20), pięćdziesiątka (50 Euro note)

    Remember:

      • These nouns are declined like other feminine nouns.

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 37

    Relative pronoun który

    The adjective który can also be used as a relative pronoun, which introduces a clause that provides more information about the noun it refers to. For example, in the sentence "The boy, who is called Peter, is very nice," the clause "who is called Peter" provides more information about the noun "boy."

    In Polish, the relative pronoun który agrees with the noun it refers to in gender, number, and case. It also declines like the adjective który.

    Here are some examples of how to use the relative pronoun który:

      • Nominative: Ten dom, który kupiłem, jest bardzo duży. (This house, which I bought, is very big.)
      • Accusative: Zobaczyłem kobietę, którą kocham. (I saw the woman I love.)
      • Genitive: Mężczyzna, którego szukam, jest moim ojcem. (The man I'm looking for is my father.)
      • Locative: Mieszkam w mieście, w którym się urodziłem. (I live in the city where I was born.)
      • Dative: Podałem pieniądze mężczyźnie, któremu pomogłem. (I gave the money to the man I helped.)
      • Instrumental: Pojechałem z przyjaciółmi, z którymi się poznałem. (I went with friends I met.)

    Adjectives used as nouns

    Some adjectives have been adopted as nouns in Polish. These adjectives are declined like nouns, but they still retain their adjective endings.

    Here are some examples of adjectives used as nouns:

      • Surnames ending in -ski, -cki, or -dzki
          • Masculine: Pan Kowalski, Pani Nowacka
          • Feminine: Kowalska, Nowacka
          • Plural: Kowalscy, Nowaccy
      • Feminine surnames and relatives ending in -owa
          • Janowa, bratowa, synowa, królowa (Mrs Jones, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law, queen)
      • Names ending in -i or -y
          • Antoni, Jerzy
      • Foreign surnames
          • Wallace – Wallace’a, Wallace’owi, z Wallace’em
          • Goethe – Goethego, Goethemu
          • Kennedy – Kennedy’ego, Kennedy’emu, z Kennedym
      • Street names
          • Lwowska, Krakowska
      • Adjectival place names
          • Biala Podlaska, Zakopane
      • Adjectival regional names
          • Lubelskie
      • Some professions
          • budowniczy, lesniczy, mysliwy, księgowy (builder, forester, hunter, accountant)
      • Nouns denoting relationships
          • krewny/a, bliskie/bliscy (relative, dear ones)
      • Plural nouns defining groups
          • niewidomi, niemi, niepeznosprawni, bezrobotni (blind, dumb, handicapped, unemployed)

    Here are some examples of how to use adjectives used as nouns:

      • Pan Kowalski jest moim sąsiadem. (Mr Kowalski is my neighbor.)
      • Janowa jest bardzo miła. (Mrs Jones is very nice.)
      • Mieszkam przy ulicy Lwowskiej. (I live on Lwowska Street.)
      • Byłem w Zakopanem. (I was in Zakopane.)
      • Jestem budowniczym. (I am a builder.)
      • Jestem krewnym Jana. (I am John's relative.)
      • Niewidomi potrzebują naszej pomocy. (The blind need our help.)

    Examples of how to use the word "księgowy"

      • Księgowy pracuje w biurze. (The accountant works in the office.)
      • Księgowy ma dużo pracy. (The accountant has a lot of work.)
      • Księgowy jest bardzo zapracowany. (The accountant is very busy.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 38

    Present Adjectival Participle (Active) - Imperfective Verbs

    The present adjectival participle is a common tool in Polish to describe ongoing actions. It's similar to English "-ing" constructions, but it only works with imperfective verbs, including reflexive ones. It functions like an adjective and has special forms, like a masculine nominative plural for males. However, because it requires correct case endings with prepositions, often a relative clause with "który" is easier to use.

    Present Tense Meaning:

    The participle's meaning depends on the main verb's tense. When the main verb is present tense, the participle also has a present tense meaning.

    Example:

      • Widzę pana budującego dom. (I see a man building a house.)

    Past Tense Meaning:

    If the main verb is past tense, the participle takes on a past tense meaning.

    Example:

      • Widziałem pana budującego dom. (I saw a man who was building a house.)

    No Commas Needed:

    Unlike English, commas are not necessary after the participle in Polish.

    Additional Notes:

      • Double imperfective verbs (like "isp/chodzić") have two present adjectival participles.
      • Many adjectives ending in "-ocy" (like "interesujący, błyszczący, bieżący") are present adjectival participles.

    Formation:

      1. Take the present adverbial participle's "-oc" ending (covered in Unit 34).
      1. Add the standard adjective endings (listed in Appendix 2).

    Here's an example:

      • Verb: czytać (to read)
      • Present adverbial participle: czytając (reading)
      • Singular (m., f., n.): czytający, -a, -e
      • Plural (men nouns): czytający
      • Plural (other nouns): czytające

    Examples of Usage:

      • Widzę chłopca słuchającego radia. (I see a boy listening to the radio.)
      • Podszedł do dzieci bawiących się na drodze. (He went up to the children playing on the road.)
      • Dziewczęta idące do kina rozmawiają. (Girls going to the cinema are chatting.)
      • Ludzie chodzący do kina lubią filmy. (People who regularly go to the cinema like films.)
      • Lecący samolot jest/był francuski. (The plane flying past is/was French.)
      • Nie ma latających talerzy. (There are no flying saucers.)

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 39

    Present Adjectival Participles (Passive) - Imperfective Verbs

    Formation of Participle:

    • The formation is similar for both present and past participles.
    • It depends on the verb group, which is determined by the ending of the infinitive in the third person singular present tense.
    • To form the present adjectival participle (passive), you add specific endings to the verb stem based on its verb group. Here's a breakdown of the endings for each group:
    • Verbs ending in -ać in the third person singular present tense add -any, -ana, -ane: For example, "pisać" (to write) becomes "pisany" (written), "malować" (to paint) becomes "malowany" (painted), and "jeść" (to eat) becomes "jedzony" (eaten).

    • Verbs ending in -eć add -ony, -ona, -one: For example, "rozumieć" (to understand) becomes "rozumiany" (understood), "słyszeć" (to hear) becomes "słyszany" (heard), and "widzieć" (to see) becomes "widziany" (seen).

    • Verbs ending in -ieć add -ony, -ona, -one: For example, "prowadzić" (to lead) becomes "prowadzony" (led), "robić" (to make) becomes "robiony" (made), and "mówić" (to say) becomes "mówiony" (said).

    • Verbs ending in -ić add -ony, -ona, -one: For example, "kupować" (to buy) becomes "kupowany" (bought), "sprzedawać" (to sell) becomes "sprzedawany" (sold), and "otwierać" (to open) becomes "otwarty" (opened).

    • Verbs ending in -yć add -ony, -ona, -one: For example, "rzucić" (to throw) becomes "rzucony" (thrown).

    • Verbs ending in -ć add -ony, -ona, -one: For example, "skończyć" (to finish) becomes "skończony" (finished), "zamknąć" (to close) becomes "zamknięty" (closed), and "zabrać" (to take away) becomes "zabrany" (taken away).

    • Verbs ending in -ąć add -any, -ana, -ane: For example, "rzucić" (to throw) becomes "rzucony" (thrown).

    • Verbs ending in -nąć add -nięty, -nięta, -nięte: For example, "znaleźć" (to find) becomes "znaleziony" (found).

    • Verbs ending in -uć add -uty, -uta, -ute: For example, "uderzyć" (to hit) becomes "uderzony" (hit).

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.

    Jednostka 40

    Past Adjectival Participle (Passive) – Perfective Verbs; Until, While, Before

    Past Adjectival Participle (Passive) – Perfective Verbs

    Formation of Passive Voice of Perfective Verbs:

      • Use "zostać" (in the correct person and tense) + past adjectival participle (passive) (optionally followed by "przez" + accusative)

    Examples:

      • Active: Kto napisał książkę? (Who wrote the book?)
      • Passive: Przez kogo została napisana książka? (Who was the book written by?)

    Two Uses of the Past Adjectival Participle (Passive):

    Forming the Passive Voice:

    Similar to Unit 39, but for perfective verbs

     

    Functioning as an Adjective:

      • Describing a state resulting from a completed action

     

      • Examples: Mam złamaną nogę (I have a broken leg). Szukam zgubionego ołówka (I'm looking for the pencil I lost).

     

    Non-Specific Past Adjectival Participle (Passive) in -o:

      • Used when the agent of an action is irrelevant (e.g., in news or historical reports)
      • Neuter form ending in -o
      • Can be used with imperfective or perfective verbs
      • Turns a passive sentence into an active one, with the subject becoming the direct object

    Examples:

      • Rozmawiano o wypadku (The accident was being discussed).
      • Ojca zawieziono do szpitala (Father was taken to hospital).

    Conjunctions of Time: "Until", "While (Not)", and "Before"

      • "aż" (until) = (do)póki nie (until, while...not)
      • "(do)póki" (while)
      • "zanim" (before)
      • Introduce subordinate clauses of time
      • Verb in subordinate clause is in future tense if main clause is in future tense or a command using a perfective verb

    Examples:

      • Będę czekać, aż odjedzie pociąg (I'll wait until the train departs).
      • Ucz się, dopóki masz szansę (Study while you have the chance).
    • Zrobię to, zanim wyjdziesz (I'll do it before you go out).

    Works Cited

    Bielec, Dana. Intermediate Polish: A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge, 2004.